science and microorganisms
by nunucool
Summary: its for all you science and socail studies lovers and for my homework plz leave a comment
1. Chapter 1

one day i woke up a micro organism i didnt know how made im a phytoplankton

Phytoplankton: Plants of the Sea by Prentice K. Stout  
P637 To the casual observer, the oceans and bays are vast trackless bodies of water. Beneath their surfaces are countless fish. But more numerous by far are the tiny microscopic animals and plants collectively called plankton, a word derived from the Greek meaning wandering. The plant portion of this complex oceanic soup is called phytoplankton. The term phyto comes from the Latin phyton meaning tree or plant. This large grouping is composed mostly of single-celled algae and bacteria. It is known that green plants liberate oxygen and produce carbohydrates, a basic link in the food chain of plants to animals to people. Collectively, this chemical process is referred to as photosynthesis (photo = light, synthesis = to make). In these tiny food factories, there is a chemical compound called chlorophyll that, in combination with sunlight, converts carbon dioxide, water, and minerals into edible carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Thus, these phytoplankton are the basis for the oceanic food chain. Animals cannot perform this biological food-making process. Two-thirds of all the photosynthesis that takes place on this earth occurs in the oceans that yearly create 80 to 160 billion tons of carbohydrates. So numerous are these tiny plant forms that they often turn the water green, brown, or reddish. Among the most abundant phytoplankton are the diatoms. Some 20,000 species make up this plant group. They consist of a tiny blob of protoplasm enclosed in a transparent pill-box structure made of silica. This silica, the main ingredient of glass, is extracted from the surrounding seawater. Minute holes or pores in their shells permit nutrient absorption and an exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen to take place with the surrounding seawater. Under favorable conditions, a single diatom can reproduce 100 million offspring in a month. Clearly, such reproductive capacity creates vast numbers - as many as a billion of them in a gallon of seawater. Those that are not eaten die and their virtually indestructible shells settle to the bottom of the ocean. In some areas of the sea, their skeletal remains form layers up to 700-feet thick. This diatomaceous earth has been used as a fine abrasive in toothpaste and automobile polish. A drop of oil within the protoplasm in the shell may have created the earth's petroleum supply. This oil in the diatom is eaten by a number of small fish; one is called the capelin, which, in turn, are eaten by codfish. From the codfish bodies come cod liver oil detested by some, but rich in vitamins A and D. While diatoms are essentially cool water inhabitants, their counterparts in tropical waters are called dinoflagellates. Equipped with whip-like projections, they propel themselves about in a jerky motion. Dr. C.P. Idyll, noted oceanographer, states, "The various species of dinoflagellates resemble chinese hats, carnival masks, children's tops, urns, pots, and vessels of many kinds, the spiky knobs of medieval war clubs, balloons on strings, hand grenades or lances." Flagellates, like diatoms, are proficient in their ability to reproduce. By splitting in half, a dinoflagellate can reproduce thirty-three million offspring in only twenty-five divisions. One species of dinoflagellate, Gonyaulax, whose excessive reproductive ability can create havoc, produces the "red tide." In the seventh chapter of the Book of Exodus, the people of Egypt were plagued with what could have been an outbreak of the red tide. Charles Darwin, on his around the world voyage on the Beagle, wrote one of the first scientific accounts of a dinoflagellate outbreak that discolored the waters off Chile. Another interesting dinoflagellate, if disturbed, emits light in the form of bioluminescence. Called Noctiluca, this small organism combines two chemicals, luciferin and luciferase (Latin: lucifer = "bearer of light"). This is the same combination of chemicals that gives our familiar firefly its ability to blink during warm summer evenings. A simple tool can be used to study these plant forms. One needs a coat hanger that has been worked into a circle. Then over this frame stretch a pair of discarded pantyhose. Cut off the legs of these stockings just below the knee and place a small plastic pill jar in the openings. Tightly wind some thread around the fabric and the mouth of the jars and then tow it through the water. The fine mesh stocking of the pantyhose will capture may of these small plant forms as well as their animal counterparts. (See fact sheet on zooplankton.) A hand lens or microscope will assist in the viewing of these fascinating organisms. orafungi Fungi Eumycota: mushrooms, sac fungi, yeast, molds, rusts, smuts, etc. Meredith Blackwell, Rytas Vilgalys, Timothy Y. James, and John W. Taylor

Phylogeny modified from James et al., 2006a, 2006b; Liu et al., 2006; Seif et al., 2005; Steenkamp et al., 2006.

Containing group: Eukaryotes

Introduction The organisms of the fungal lineage include mushrooms, rusts, smuts, puffballs, truffles, morels, molds, and yeasts, as well as many less well-known organisms (Alexopoulos et al., 1996). More than 70,000 species of fungi have been described; however, some estimates of total numbers suggest that 1.5 million species may exist (Hawksworth, 1991; Hawksworth et al., 1995). As the sister group of animals and part of the eukaryotic crown group that radiated about a billion years ago, the fungi constitute an independent group equal in rank to that of plants and animals. They share with animals the ability to export hydrolytic enzymes that break down biopolymers, which can be absorbed for nutrition. Rather than requiring a stomach to accomplish digestion, fungi live in their own food supply and simply grow into new food as the local environment becomes nutrient depleted. Most biologists have seen dense filamentous fungal colonies growing on rich nutrient agar plates, but in nature the filaments can be much longer and the colonies less dense. When one of the filaments contacts a food supply, the entire colony mobilizes and reallocates resources to exploit the new food. Should all food become depleted, sporulation is triggered. Although the fungal filaments and spores are microscopic, the colony can be very large with individuals of some species rivaling the mass of the largest animals or plants.

Figure 1: Hyphae of a wood-decaying fungus found growing on the underside of a fallen log. The metabolically active hyphae have secreted droplets on their surfaces. Copyright © M. Blackwell 1996.

Prior to mating in sexual reproduction, individual fungi communicate with other individuals chemically via pheromones. In every phylum at least one pheromone has been characterized, and they range from sesquiterpines and derivatives of the carotenoid pathway in chytridiomycetes and zygomycetes to oligopeptides in ascomycetes and basidiomycetes. Within their varied natural habitats fungi usually are the primary decomposer organisms present. Many species are free-living saprobes (users of carbon fixed by other organisms) in woody substrates, soils, leaf litter, dead animals, and animal exudates. The large cavities eaten out of living trees by wood-decaying fungi provide nest holes for a variety of animals, and extinction of the ivory billed woodpecker was due in large part to loss, through human activity, of nesting trees in bottom land hardwoods. In some low nitrogen environments several independent groups of fungi have adaptations such as nooses and sticky knobs with which to trap and degrade nematodes and other small animals. A number of references on fungal ecology are available (Carroll and Wicklow, 1992; Cooke and Whipps, 1993; Dix and Webster, 1995). However, many other fungi are biotrophs, and in this role a number of successful groups form symbiotic associations with plants (including algae), animals (especially arthropods), and prokaryotes. Examples are lichens, mycorrhizae, and leaf and stem endophytes. Although lichens may seem infrequent in polluted cities, they can form the dominant vegetation in nordic environments, and there is a better than 80% chance that any plant you find is mycorrhizal. Leaf and stem endophytes are a more recent discovery, and some of these fungi can protect the plants they inhabit from herbivory and even influence flowering and other aspects of plant reproductive biology. Fungi are our most important plant pathogens, and include rusts, smuts, and many ascomycetes such as the agents of Dutch elm disease and chestnut blight. Among the other well known associations are fungal parasites of animals. Humans, for example, may succumb to diseases caused by _Pneumocystis _(a type of pneumonia that affects individuals with supressed immune systems), _Coccidioides _(valley fever), _Ajellomyces _(blastomycosis and histoplasmosis), and _Cryptococcus _(cryptococcosis) (Kwon-Chung and Bennett, 1992).

Figure 2: The fluffy white hyphae of the mycorrhizal fungus _Rhizopogon rubescens_ has enveloped the smaller roots of a Virginia pine seedling. Note that some of the mycelium extends out into the surrounding environment. Copyright © J. B. Anderson 1996.

Figure 3: _Entomophthora_, "destroyer of insects", is the agent of a fungual infection that kills flies. After their death the fungal growth erupts through the fly cuticle, and dispersal by forcible spore discharge is a source of inoculum for infection of new flies. Copyright © G. L. Barron 1996.

Fungal spores may be actively or passively released for dispersal by several effective methods. The air we breathe is filled with spores of species that are air dispersed. These usually are species that produce large numbers of spores, and examples include many species pathogenic on agricultural crops and trees. Other species are adapted for dispersal within or on the surfaces of animals (particularly arthropods). Some fungi are rain splash or flowing water dispersed. In a few cases the forcible release of spores is sufficient to serve as the dispersal method as well. The function of some spores is not primarily for dispersal, but to allow the organisms to survive as resistant cells during periods when the conditions of the environment are not conducive to growth. Fungi are vital for their ecosystem functions, some of which we have reviewed in the previous paragraphs. In addition a number of fungi are used in the processing and flavoring of foods (baker's and brewer's yeasts, Penicillia in cheese-making) and in production of antibiotics and organic acids. Other fungi produce secondary metabolites such as aflatoxins that may be potent toxins and carcinogens in food of birds, fish, humans, and other mammals. A few species are studied as model organisms that can be used to gain knowledge of basic processes such as genetics, physiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology with results that are applicable to many organisms (Taylor et al., 1993). Some of the fungi that have been intensively studied in this way include _Saccharomyces cereviseae_, _Neurospora crassa_, and _Ustilago maydis_. Most phyla appear to be terrestrial in origin, although all major groups have invaded marine and freshwater habitats. An exception to this generality is the flagellum-bearing phyla Chytridiomycota, Blastocladiomycota, and Neocallimastigomycota (collectively referred to as chytrids), which probably had an aquatic origin. Extant chytrid species also occur in terrestrial environments as plant pathogenic fungi, soil fungi, and even as anaerobic inhabitants of the guts of herbivores such as cows (all Neocallimastigomycota). Characteristics Fungi are characterized by non-motile bodies (thalli) constructed of apically elongating walled filaments (hyphae), a life cycle with sexual and asexual reproduction, usually from a common thallus, haploid thalli resulting from zygotic meiosis, and heterotrophic nutrition. Spindle pole bodies, not centrioles, usually are associated with the nuclear envelope during cell division. The characteristic wall components are chitin (beta-1,4-linked homopolymers of N-acetylglucosamine in microcrystalline state) and glucans primarily alpha-glucans (alpha-1,3- and alpha-1,6- linkages) (Griffin, 1994).

Figure 4: Portion of a hypha of a zygomycete stained with a blue dye to show the many nuclei present. Many other fungi have septations that devide the hyphae into compartments that usually contain one to several nuclei per compartment. Copyright © M. Blackwell 1996.

Figure 5: Transmission electron micrograph showing duplicated spindle pole body of a prophase I meiotic nucleus of a basidiomycete _Exobasidium_. Only chytrids among fungi have centrioles and lack spindle pole bodies. Copyright © Beth Richardson 1996.

Exceptions to this characterization of fungi are well known, and include the following: Most species of chytrids have cells with a single, smooth, posteriorly inserted flagellum at some stage in the life cycle, and centrioles are associated with nuclear division. The life cycles of almost all flagellated fungi are poorly studied. The thalli of Chytridiomycota have been thought to be haploid, but recent population genetic data support diploidy for one species (Morehouse et al. 2003; Morgan et al. 2007). Most members of Blastocladiomycota appear to have sporic meiosis and, therefore, an alternation between haploid and diploid generations. Certain members of Mucoromycotina, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota may lack hyphal growth during part or all of their life cycles, and, instead, produce budding yeast cells. Most fungal species with yeast growth forms contain only minute amounts of chitin in the walls of the yeast cells. A few species of Ascomycota (Ophiostomataceae) have cellulose in their walls, and certain members of Blastocladiomycota and Entomophthoromycotina lack walls during part of their life cycle (Alexopoulos et al., 1996). Fossil Record Based on the available fossil record, fungi are presumed to have been present in Late Proterozoic (900-570 mya). Terrestrial forms of purported ascomycetes are reported in associations with microarthropods in the Silurian Period (438-408 mya) (Sherwood-Pike and Gray, 1985). Fossil hyphae in association with wood decay and fossil chytrids and Glomales-Endogonales representatives associated with plants of the Rhynie Chert are reported from the Devonian Period (408-360 mya) (Hass et al., 1994; Remy et al., 1994a, 1994b; Taylor et al., 1994a, 1995b). Fungal fossil diversity increased throughout the Paleozoic Era (Taylor et al., 1994b) with all modern classes reported in the Pennsylvanian Epoch (320-286 mya). A first attempt to match molecular data on fungal phylogeny to the geological record shows general agreement, but does point out some conflicts between the two types of data (Berbee and Taylor 1993). Biogeography Wherever adequate moisture, temperature, and organic substrates are available, fungi are present. Although we normally think of fungi as growing in warm, moist forests, many species occur in habitats that are cold, periodically arid, or otherwise seemingly inhospitable. It is important to recognize that optimum conditions for growth and reproduction vary widely with fungal species. Diversity of most groups of fungi tends to increase in tropical regions, but detailed studies are only in their infancy (Isaac et al., 1993). Although many saprobic and plant pathogenic species with low substrate specificity and effective dispersal systems have broad distributions, gene flow appears to be restricted in many fungi. For these species large bodies of water such as the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans create barriers to gene exchange. Some distributions are limited by substrate availability, and dramatic examples come from parasites of Gondowanan plants; one of these is the Southern Hemisphere distribution of the ascomycete Cyttaria, corresponding with part of the distribution of its host plant Nothofagus. The fossil record shows that fungi were present in Antarctica, as is the case for other organisms with Gondwanan distributions. Arthropod associates also may show distributions throughout part or all of a host range, and some fungal species (ex. wood wasp associates) occur outside the range of the associated arthropod. Notable Fungi The largest known basidioma (mushroom or fruiting body) was that of a _Rigidioporus ulmarius_ (Agaricomycetes), hidden-away in a shady corner of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, England. This fruiting body was mentioned in the _Guinness Book of World Records_ (Matthews, 1994). At the beginning of every New Year the Annual Mensuration Ceremony of the fruiting body took place, and on 19 January 1996 it had increased to 170 cm maximum length (up from 159 in 1995) and 146 cm maximum width (up from 140 in 1995). It also grew 4 cm taller from the soil level, measuring 54 cm. The weight of the fruiting body was estimated to be 284 kg (625 pounds)! Amid rumors of its destruction, Dr. Brian M. Spooner, Head of Mycology, Royal Botanic Gardens, has brought us up to date on the fate of the record specimen. Unfortunately, the basidioma began to rot at the edges a few years ago, likely because the hyphal body of the fungus digested away its elm root substrate, reminding us that a fungus needs a good dispersal system to escape the substrate that eventually inevitably is destroyed. In the life of the fruiting body many trillions of spores must have been produced, and some of these surely fell on an appropiate substrate to establish a new infection. The final insult to the fruiting body came from a fox that burrowed under one side and caused it to collapse. Figure 6: The largest basidioma world record holder _Rigidioporus ulmarius_ at Kew when it was still intact. The mushroom is shown in its largest dimension (170 cm or over 5 1/2 feet). Copyright © D. Pegler 1996. Other large basidiomata are those of a Canadian puffball almost 9 feet in circumference (over 48 pounds) and a basidiocarp of the sulfur mushroom in England (100 pounds). A previous_Guinness Book of World Records_ record-sized fruiting body of _Bridgeoporus nobilissimus_, an endangered species of the Pacific Northwest of the United States, is over 160 kg (300 pounds) and may have regained the title of "largest" with the demise of the Kew specimen. This polypore also may do itself in because its great weight is likely to eventually cause it to fall as the mycelium depletes its food source, often the noble fir tree. Reproductive structures clearly can be very large, but what about the body of the fungus, which often is hidden from view within the substrate? One fungus body constructed of tubular filaments (hyphae) was brought to our attention when molecular techniques were used to show that it was extensive (37 acres and an estimated blue whale equivalent size of 110 tons). The Michigan fungus clone (_Armillaria bulbosa_, Agaricomycetes) grew in tree roots and soil. This report drew attention to an even larger fungal clone of _Armillaria ostoyae_, reported earlier in the state of Washington, which covered over 1,500 acres. Each clone began from the germination of a single spore over a thousand years ago. Although they probably have fragmented and are no longer continuous bodies, such organisms give us cause to think about what constitutes an individual. _Penicillium chrysogenum_ (Ascomycota) is known for its production of the antibiotic penicillin. Although other antibiotics are produced by a variety of organisms, penicillin was the first to be developed. In the spring of 1996 a long dried out culture of the original isolate prepared by its discoverer, Sir Alexander Fleming in the late 1920s, was auctioned by Sotheby's of London and sold to a pharmaceutical company for 23,000 pounds. This price is insignificant when one considers the worth of this fungus, not only in sales of penicillin, but in terms of illnesses cured and lives saved. In the past a simple scratch or blister sometimes could result in a fatal infection such as the blister that resulted in the death of John Calvin Coolidge (1918-1924), the son of a U. S. president. However, misuse of penicillin and other antibiotics has resulted in selection of resistant microorganisms, and the threat of untreatable bacterial infections and diseases (for example_Staphylococcus aureus_ and _Escherichia coli_ and tuberculosis and syphilis) is still present in our homes and recreation areas. Fungal spores fill the air we breathe. On many days in some localities the number of fungal spores in the air far exceeds the pollen grains. Fungal spores also cause allergies; however, unlike seasonal pollen production, some fungi can produce spores all year long. The largest number of fungal spores ever sampled was over 5.5 million per cubic foot in Wales (Matthews, 1994). Basidiomycetes have always attracted a lot of attention because some of them have large basidiocarps, but the realization that all fungi are important in ecosystem function has drawn more attention to microscopic forms as well. For example a report on the secret sex life of a yeast-like ascomycete human pathogen, _Coccidioides immitis_, made a headline of the New York Times (6 February 1996, p. B7). This fungus causes Valley Fever and is endemic in parts of the southwestern United States. Although no one has been able to observe sexual reproduction in this species, molecular studies show genetic diversity that is best explained by occurrence of sexual reproduction in the life cycle. Another yeast-like ascomycete reported in the Dallas Morning News (28 August 1995, p. 8D) lives in the gut of cigar beetles and is essential to the beetle's health. Without the gut fungi to detoxify the plant material of toxins, the beetles would be poisoned. Keep on the lookout for other reports of fascinating fungal feats. Discussion of Phylogenetic Relationships The kingdom Fungi is a diverse clade of heterotrophic organisms that shares some characters with animals such as chitinous structures, storage of glycogen, and mitochondrial codon UGA encoding tryptophan. Both animals and fungi have spores or gametes with a single smooth, posteriorly inserted flagellum, but only species of the basal chytrid phyla have retained this primitive character (Barr, 1992; Cavalier-Smith, 1987, 1995). Fungi, animals, and other heterotrophic protist-like organisms such as choanoflagellates and Mesomycetozoea are now considered part of the larger group termed opisthokonts (Cavalier-Smith, 1987) in reference to the posterior flagellum. The branch uniting the fungi and animals is well-supported based on a number of molecular phylogenetic datasets, including the nuclear small subunit ribosomal RNA gene (Wainwright et al., 1993; Bruns et al. 1993), unique and shared sequence insertions in proteins such as elongation factor 1α (Baldauf and Palmer, 1993), entire mitochondrial genomes (Lang et al., 2002), and concatenated protein-coding genes (Steenkamp et al., 2006). Prior classification systems of Fungi based primarily on morphology are in need of updating to more accurately reflect phylogenetic relationships as determined by molecular systematics. Molecular characters have been essential for phylogenetic analysis in cases when morphological characters are convergent, reduced, or missing among the taxa considered. This is especially true of species that never reproduce sexually, because characters of sexual reproduction traditionally have been the basis for classification of Fungi. Use of molecular characters allows asexual fungi to be placed among their closest relatives. Previous classifications placed early-diverging fungal groups (non-Ascomycota or Basidiomycota) into two phyla: Chytridiomycota and Zygomycota. Numerous phylogenetic studies now suggest that neither is monophyletic, and the latest classification scheme includes six phyla and an additional four unplaced subphyla (Hibbett et al., 2007). At present, because of the ancient divergence times between the fungal phyla, the exact phylogenetic relationships are ambiguous. Chytrids appear to be a paraphyletic group at the base of the fungal phylogeny and merely fungal lineages which have retained the character of flagellated spores. Three phyla of flagellated fungi are proposed (Blastocladiomycota, Chytridiomycota, and Neocallimastigomycota; Hibbett et al., 2007) and two chytrid genera _Olpidium_ and _Rozella_, are of uncertain phylogenetic position (James et al., 2006a, 2006b). These genera are interesting because they are both highly reduced endoparasites (living inside the host cell) whose entire thallus consists of only a spherical body absorbing nutrients from the host material that surrounds it. _Rozella_ appears in an isolated position in the fungal phylogeny as the very earliest lineage to diverge from the rest of the fungi (James et al., 2006a, 2006b). In contrast, _Olpidium brassicae_ appears to have diverged after the majority of chytrids and is more closely related to some zygomycete fungi (James et al., 2006a, 2006b). Figure 7: The endoparasitic chytrid _Rozella allomycis_ inside the hyphae of another chytrid _Allomyces_. Thick spiny spores of the parasite are seen inside some cells while zoospores are produced in other cells. © Timothy Y. James Fungi with non-septate or irregularly septate hyphae and thick-walled spores were traditionally placed in the phylum Zygomycota. However, evidence for a monophyletic Zygomycota is lacking (Seif et al., 2005), and the deconstruction of the Zygomycota into four unordered subphyla (Entomophthoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, Mucoromycotina, Zoopagomycotina) has been proposed (Hibbett et al., 2007). The separation of the superficially similar arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (that lack septa in hyphae but also lack zygospores) into the phylum Glomeromycota has been previously proposed (Schüßler et al., 2001). Whether this phylum is more closely related to the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota lineage or to other zygomycete lineages is controversial (Redecker et al., 2006). Evidence from shared morphological characters such as regularly septate hyphae and a dikaryotic stage (two separate and different nuclei in a single hyphal segment) in the life cycle usually has been interpreted as support for a close relationship between Basidiomycota and Ascomycota. Numerous phylogenetic studies such as SSU rDNA (Berbee and Taylor, 1992), RNA polymerase genes (Liu et al., 2006), and mitochondrial genome sequencing (Seif et al., 2005) provide strong support for this relationship. A subkingdom termed Dikarya is proposed (Hibbett et al., 2007), creating a division between a highly speciose subkingdom (Dikarya) and the remaining early diverging lineages whose relationships are not precisely known. Fungal classification is far from static, and even which organisms are actually members of Fungi is changing. For example, the group trichomycetes describes gut inhabitants of arthropods that share similarities with zygomycetes. Molecular phylogenetic studies have demonstrated that two of the four orders of trichomycetes are actually members of the Mesomycetozoea protist group (Benny and O'Donnell, 2000; Cafaro, 2005). Other organisms that were previously considered to be Fungi because of their heterotrophic, mold-like growth forms are now classified as stramenopiles (Oomycota, Hyphochytriomycota, and Labyrinthulomycota) or slime molds (Myxomycota, Plasmodiomycota, Dictyosteliomycota, Acrasiomycota) (Bhattacharya et al., 1992; Leipe et al., 1994; Van der Auwera et al., 1995). More interesting for mycologists are the findings that some species previously considered protozoa are actually Fungi. For example, the species _Hyaloraphidium curvatum_ was assumed to be a green alga that had adopted a heterotrophic lifecycle concomitantly with losing its chloroplast. It is now known to be a chytrid fungus related to Monoblephariomycetes but lacking a flagellated stage (Ustinova et al., 2000). Other examples include the parasitic organisms presumed to be protozoa, such as the cockroach parasite _Nepridiophaga_ (Wylezich et al., 2004) and the _Daphnia_parasite _Polycarum_ (Johnson et al., 2006) recently demonstrated to be members of the fungal kingdom based on SSU rDNA phylogenies. The most revolutionary addition to the fungal lineage has occurred with phylogenetic evidence indicating the protist group microsporidia is closely related to Fungi–possibly derived from zygomycetes (Keeling, 2003) or sister to the genus _Rozella_ on the earliest branch in the fungal kingdom (James et al., 2006a). Microsporidia are highly specialized intracellular parasites (primarily of animals) that lack mitochondria but have chitin and trehalose in their spores (similar to Fungi). All molecular studies have shown that microsporidia evolve at an extremely accelerated rate of evolution, making their placement in the Tree of Life difficult. The relationship with fungi is supported by many single and multiple gene phylogenies (e.g., Liu et al., 2006), but an exact placement within the fungi has not received strong support (Keeling and Fast, 2002). More recently the nuclearid amoebae have been demonstrated to be a sister group to the Fungi with strong support (Steenkamp et al., 2006). This finding is significant because _Nuclearia_ lacks a cell wall and has phagotrophic nutrition in which the food source (such as a bacterium or algal cell) is engulfed wholly, unlike fungi and microsporidia which utilize absorptive nutrition. Further sampling of basal fungal lineages will be needed to determine whether a _Nuclearia_-like organism was the cenancestor (most recent common ancestor) of Fungi.

Other Names for Fungi Mycota Eumycota

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Hibbett, D. S., M. Binder, J. F. Bischoff, M. Blackwell, P. F. Cannon, O. E. Eriksson, S. Huhndorf, T. James, P. M. Kirk, R. Lücking, T. Lumbsch, F. Lutzoni, P. B. Matheny, D. J. Mclaughlin, M. J. Powell, S. Redhead, C. L. Schoch, J. W. Spatafora, J. A. Stalpers, R. Vilgalys, M. C. Aime, A. Aptroot, R. Bauer, D. Begerow, G. L. Benny, L. A. Castlebury, P. W. Crous, Y.-C. Dai, W. Gams, D. M. Geiser, G. W. Griffith, C. Gueidan, D. L. Hawksworth, G. Hestmark, K. Hosaka, R. A. Humber, K. Hyde, J. E. Ironside, U. Kõljalg, C. P. Kurtzman, K.-H. Larsson, R. Lichtwardt, J. Longcore, J. Miądlikowska, A. Miller, J.-M. Moncalvo, S. Mozley-Standridge, F. Oberwinkler, E. Parmasto, V. Reeb, J. D. Rogers, C. Roux, L. Ryvarden, J. P. Sampaio, A. Schüßler, J. Sugiyama, R. G. Thorn, L. Tibell, W. A. Untereiner, C. Walker, Z. Wang, A. Weir, M. Weiß, M. M. White, K. Winka, Y.-J. Yao, and N. Zhang. 2007. A higher-level phylogenetic classification of the Fungi. Mycological Research 111: 509-547.

Isaac, S., J. C. Frankland, R. Watling, and A. J. S. Whalley. 1993. Aspects of Tropical Mycology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.

James, T. Y., F. Kauff, C. Schoch, P. B. Matheny, V. Hofstetter, C. Cox, G. Celio, C. Gueidan, E. Fraker, J. Miadlikowska, H. T. Lumbsch, A. Rauhut, V. Reeb, A. E. Arnold, A. Amtoft, J. E. Stajich, K. Hosaka, G.-H. Sung, D. Johnson, B. O'Rourke, M. Crockett, M. Binder, J. M. Curtis, J. C. Slot, Z. Wang, A. W. Wilson, A. Schüßler, J. E. Longcore, K. O'Donnell, S. Mozley-Standridge, D. Porter, P. M. Letcher, M. J. Powell, J. W. Taylor, M. M. White, G. W. Griffith, D. R. Davies, R. A. Humber, J. B. Morton, J. Sugiyama, A. Y. Rossman, J. D. Rogers, D. H. Pfister, D. Hewitt, K. Hansen, S. Hambleton, R. A. Shoemaker, J. Kohlmeyer, B. Volkmann-Kohlmeyer, R. A. Spotts, M. Serdani, P. W. Crous, K. W. Hughes, K. Matsuura, E. Langer, G. Langer, W. A. Untereiner, R. Lücking, B. Büdel, D. M. Geiser, A. Aptroot, P. Diederich, I. Schmitt, M. Schultz, R. Yahr, D. Hibbett, F Lutzoni, D. McLaughlin, J. Spatafora, and R. Vilgalys. 2006a. Reconstructing the early evolution of the fungi using a six gene phylogeny. Nature 443:818-822.

James, T. Y., P. M. Letcher, J. E. Longcore, S. E. Mozley-Standridge, D. Porter, M. J. Powell, G. W. Griffith, and R. Vilgalys. 2006b. A molecular phylogeny of the flagellated Fungi (Chytridiomycota) and a proposal for a new phylum (Blastocladiomycota). Mycologia 98: 860-871.

Johnson, P. T. J., J. E. Longcore, D. E. Stanton, R. B. Carnegie, J. D. Shields, and E. R. Preu. 2006. Chytrid infections of Daphnia pulicaria: development, ecology, pathology and phylogeny of Polycaryum laeve. Freshwater Biology 51: 634-648.

Keeling, P. J. 2003. Congruent evidence from alpha-tubulin and beta-tubulin gene phylogenies for a zygomycete origin of microsporidia. Fungal Genetics and Biology 38: 298-309.

Keeling, P. J., and N. M. Fast. 2002. Microsporidia: biology and evolution of highly reduced intracellular parasites. Annual Review of Microbiology 56: 93-116.

Kwon-Chung, K.J., and J.E. Bennett. 1992. Medical Mycology. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia.

Lang, B. F., C. O'Kelly, T. Nerad, M. W. Gray, and G. Burger. 2002. Current Biology 12: 1773-1778.

Leipe, D. D., P. O. Wainright, J. H. Gunderson, D. Porter, D. J. Patterson, F. Valois, S. Himmerich, and M. L. Sogin. 1994. The straminopiles from a molecular perspective: 16S-like rRNA sequences from Labyrinthula minuta and Cafeteria roenbergensis. Phycologia 33:369-377.

Liu, Y., M. C. Hodson, and B. D. Hall. 2006. Loss of the flagellum happened only once in the fungal lineage: phylogenetic structure of kingdom Fungi inferred from RNA polymerase II subunit genes. BMC Evolutionary Biology 6:74.

Matthews, P. (Ed.). 1994. Guinness Book of Records. Bantum Books, New York. 819p.

Morehouse, E. A., T. Y. James, A. R. D. Ganley, R. Vilgalys, L. Berger, P. J. Murphy, and J. E. Longcore. 2003. Multilocus sequence typing suggests the chytrid pathogen of amphibians is a recently emerged clone. Molecular Ecology 12:395-403.

Morgan, J. A. T., V. T. Vredenburg, L. J. Rachowicz, R. A. Knapp, M. J. Stice, T. Tunstall, R. E. Bingham, J. M. Parker, J. E. Longcore, C. Moritz, C. J. Briggs, and J. W. Taylor. 2007. Population genetics of the frog killing fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104:13845-13850.

Nagahama, T., H. Sato, M. Shimazu, and J. Sugiyama. 1995. Phylogenetic divergence of the entomophthoralean fungi: evidence from nuclear 18S ribosomal RNA gene sequences. Mycologia 87:203-209.

Redecker, D., and P. Raab. 2006. Phylogeny of the Glomeromycota (arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi): recent developments and new gene markers. Mycologia 98: 885-895.

Remy, W., T. N. Taylor, and H. Hass. 1994a. Early Devonian fungi - a blastocladalean fungus with sexual reproduction. American Journal of Botany 81:690-702.

Remy, W., T. N. Taylor, H. Hass, and H. Kerp. 1994b. Four hundred-million-year-old vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 91:11841-11843.

Rodrigo, A. G., P. R. Bergquist, and P. I. Bergquist. 1994. Inadequate support for an evolutionary link between the metazoa and the fungi. Systematic Biology 43:578-584.

Schüßler, A., D. Schwarzott, and C. Walker. 2001. A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution. Mycological Research. 105: 1413-1421.

Seif, E., J. Leigh, Y. Liu, I. Roewer, L. Forget, and B. F. Lang. 2005. Comparative mitochondrial genomics in zygomycetes: bacteria-like RNase P RNAs, mobile elements and a close source of the group I intron invasion in angiosperms. Nucleic Acids Research 33:734-744.

Sherwood-Pike, M. A., and J. Gray. 1985. Silurian fungal remains: probable records of the class Ascomycota. Lethaia 18:1-20.

Sidow, A., and W. K. Thomas. 1994. A molecular evolutionary framework for eukaryotic model organisms. Current Biology 4:596-603.

Steenkamp, E. T., J. Wright, and S. L. Baldauf. 2006. The protistan origins of animals and fungi. Mol. Biol. Evol. 23:93-106.

Taylor, J. W., B. Bowman, M. L. Berbee, and T. J. White. 1993. Fungal model organisms: phylogenetics of Saccharomyces, Aspergillus and Neurospora.. Systematic Biology 42:440-457.

Taylor, T. N., W. Remy, H. Hass 1994a. Allomyces in the Devonian. Nature 367:601-601.

Taylor, T. N., J. Galtier, B. J. Axsmith. 1994b. Fungi from the Lower Carboniferous of central France. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 83:253-260.

Taylor, T. N., W. Remy, H. Hass, H. Kerp. 1995a. Fossil arbuscular mycorrhizae from the Early Devonian. Mycologia 87:560-573.

Ustinova, I., L. Krienitz and V. A. R. Huss. 2000. Hyaloraphidium curvatum is not a green alga, but a lower fungus; Amobedium parasiticum is not a fungus, but a member of the DRIPs. Protist 151: 253-262.

Van der Auwera, G., R. De Baere, Y. Van de Peer, P. De Rijk, I. Van den Broeck, and R. De Wachter. 1995. The phylogeny of Hyphochytriomycota as deduced from ribosomal RNA sequences of Hyphochytrium catenoides. Molecular Biology and Evolution 12:671-678.

Wainright, P. O., G. Hinkle, M. L. Sogin, and S. K. Stickel. 1993. Monophyletic origins of the Metazoa: an evolutionary link with fungi. Science 260:340-342.

Wylezich, C., R. Radek, and M. Schlegel. 2004. Phylogenetic analysis of the 18S rRNA identifies the parasitic protist Nephridiophaga blattellae (Nephridiophagidae) as a representative of the Zygomycota (Fungi). Denisia 13: 435-442.

Information on the Internet Popular Sites MykoWeb. WWW pages devoted to the science of mycology and the hobby of mushrooming. Mycological Society of San Francisco. North America's largest local amateur mycological association. Mushroom Observer. The purpose of this site is to record observations about mushrooms, help people identify mushrooms they aren't familiar with, and expand the community around the scientific exploration of mushrooms (mycology). The Fungal Jungal. To further educate people about fungi, edible and otherwise, To encourage sustainable and responsible mushroom harvest, and preserve mushroom habitat. Tom Volk's Fungi. Dave Fischer's North American Mushroom Basics. . Forest Fungi. Pilze, Pilze, Pilze. In deutsch. Westfälischen Pilzbriefe. In deutsch. Micologi Associati. Nell'italiano. Directories, Databases & Collections The WWW Virtual Library: Mycology. A well indexed entrance to almost all mycology and fungal biology resources on the Internet. . An internet site containing information about diversity of fungi. Mycorrhiza Information Exchange. Mycology Online. A WWW resource of clinically significant mycological information. Yahoo Mycology. Mycologists Online. World-wide directory for mycology and lichenology. Fungal Databases. Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Agricultural Research Service. United States Department of Agriculture. Beltsville, Maryland, USA. The Fifth Kingdom online. A mycological encyclopedia. Mycological and Lichenological Collection Catalogs. UCMP Berkeley. University of Alberta Microfungus Collection & Herbarium (UAMH). University of Michigan Fungus Collection. Mycological Herbarium. The Natural History Museums and Botanical Garden, University of Oslo. Herbarium Mycologicum. National Botanic Garden of Belgium. Index Fungorum. Names of fungi. Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS). Fungal Biodiversity Center - Utrecht, The Netherlands. Fungal Genetics Stock Center. Canadian Collection of Fungal Cultures. Images Treasures from the Kingdom of Fungi. Taylor Lockwood's mushroom photography. Fungi Images on the Net. Fungi, Moulds and Lichens. BioImages: The Virtual Field-Guide (UK). George Barron's Website on Mushrooms and other Fungi. Eileen's Mushroom Mania. Nathan's Fungi Page. Pamela's Mushrooms. Research Labs & Projects Deep Hypha. NSF-funded Research Coordination Network (RCN) that is focused on developing robust phylogenetic hypotheses for the deep branches within Kingdom Fungi and enhanced research and educational tools in fungal systematics. AFTOL: Assembling the Fungal Tree of Life. Collaborative research in fungal phylogenetics. Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Agricultural Research Service. United States Department of Agriculture. Beltsville, Maryland, USA. Forest Mycology and Mycorrhiza Research Team. Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Corvallis, OR, USA. Cornell Center for Fungal Biology (CCFB). IUCN SSC Fungi Specialist Group Website. Mycology at Louisiana State University. Meredith Blackwell's lab. Bruns Lab. University of California at Berkeley. Ecology and evolution of fungi. Spatafora Lab. Oregon State University. Systematics and evolutionary biology of fungi. Taylor Lab. University of California at Berkeley. Evolutionary relationships of fungi, concentrating on the fungi that cause human disease. Thorn Lab. University of Western Ontario. Fungal ecology and systematics. Vilgalys Lab. Duke University. Natural history of fungi, including all aspects of their evolutionary biology, population genetics, and systematics. MycoSite. University of Oslo, Norway. University of Georgia Mycology. University of Tennessee Mycology Lab. Fungal Mitochondrial Genome Project (FMGP). B. Franz Lang, Université de Montréal. Fungimap Australia. A collaborative project between professional and amateur mycologists and naturalists to gather information about the distribution of fungi throughout Australia. The Fungi of New Zealand. Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research. MycoKey. Thomas Læssøe & Jens H. Petersen, University of Aarhus. Comparative Studies on the Macrofungi of China and Eastern North America. Qiuxin Wu & Gregory M. Mueller, The Field Museum, Chicago. Survey of Northern Illinois and Indiana Fungi. John F. Murphy & Gregory M. Mueller. The Field Museum, Chicago. Macrofungi of Costa Rica. Roy E. Halling & Gregory M. Mueller. The Fungi of Kenya. Malawi Fungi. Moulds. Isolation, Cultivation, Identification. David Malloch, Department of Botany, University of Toronto. Professional Societies The International Mycological Association. A group that represents mycologists and fungal biologists throughout the world. British Mycological Society. Mycological Society of America. Asociación Latinoamericana de Micología. Australasian Mycological Society. The International Society for Mushroom Science. To further the cultivation of edible (including medicinal) macrofungi. Translations Ukrainian Translation.

Title Illustrations

Scientific Name

Chytridium (Chytridiomycota)

Comments

Individual growing on a single pine pollen grain. Successive photos show zoospore release from the sporangium, and the arrow points to a flagellum.

Copyright

© 1996 H. Whisler, M. Fuller

Scientific Name

Pilobolus crystallinus (Mucoromycotina)

Comments

Black sporangium atop swollen sporangiophore. Shortly, the swollen subsporangial vesicle will burst to send the sporangium flying. Herbivores eat the sporangium, and the enclosed mitospores germinate in the dung. The bright yellow carotenoid pigment enables the sporangium to orient to light (phototropism). If you look closely, you can see masses of nematodes on the vesicle; probably herbivore pathogens hoping to hitch a ride.

Specimen Condition

Live Specimen

Copyright

© 1996 Meredith Blackwell

Scientific Name

Coprinus comatus

Location

North Fork John Day Ranger District, Umatilla National Forest, northeastern Oregon, United States

Comments

Closed fruiting bodies

Specimen Condition

Live Specimen

Source

#0808028

Source Collection

Bugwood Network/Forestry Images

Image Use

This media file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License - Version 3.0.

Copyright

© Dave Powell, USDA Forest Service

Scientific Name

Sarcoscypha coccinea

Location

Archidona, Málaga, Andalucía, Spain

Comments

Fruiting body of the scarlet cup fungus. Hundreds of millions of meiospores (ascospores) are discharged from this cup, usually in puffs that produce visible clouds of spores.

Specimen Condition

Live Specimen

Source

Sarcoscypha Coccinea

Source Collection

Flickr

Image Use

This media file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License - Version 2.0.

Copyright

© 2002 Coqui

or maybe a algae

The _**International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants**_ (_**ICN**_) is the set of rules and recommendations dealing with the formal botanical namesthat are given to plants, fungi and a few other groups of organisms, all those "traditionally treated as plants".[1]:Preamble, para. 7 It was formerly called the_**International Code of Botanical Nomenclature**_ (ICBN); the name was changed at the International Botanical Congress in Melbourne in July 2011 as part of the _Melbourne Code_ which replaces the _Vienna Code_ of 2005. As with previous codes, it takes effect as soon as ratified by the congress (on Saturday 23 July 2011), but the documentation of the code in its final form takes some time to prepare after the congress. Preliminary wording of some of the articles with the most significant changes has been published in September 2011.[2] The name of the _Code_ is partly capitalized and partly not. The lower-case for "algae, fungi, and plants" indicates that these terms are not formal names ofclades, but indicate groups of organisms that were historically known by these names and traditionally studied by botanists, mycologists, and phycologists. This includes blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria); fungi, including chytrids, oomycetes, and slime moulds; photosynthetic protists and taxonomically related non-photosynthetic groups. There are special provisions in the _ICN_ for some of these groups, as there are for fossils.[1]:Preamble, para. 7 The _ICN_ can only be changed by an International Botanical Congress (IBC), with the International Association for Plant Taxonomy providing the supporting infrastructure. Each new edition supersedes the earlier editions and is retroactive back to 1753, except where different starting dates are specified.[1]:Principle VI For the naming of cultivated plants there is a separate code, the _International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants_, which gives rules and recommendations that supplement the _ICN_.

Contents

[hide]

1 Principles

2 History

3 See also

4 References

[edit]Principles Botanical nomenclature is independent of zoological, bacteriological, and viral nomenclature (see Nomenclature codes). A botanical name is fixed to a taxon by a type.[1]:Article 7 This is almost invariably dried plant material and is usually deposited and preserved in a herbarium, although it may also be an image or a preserved culture. Some type collections can be viewed online at the websites of the herbaria in question. A guiding principle in botanical nomenclature is priority, the first publication of a name for a taxon.[1]:Principle IIII The formal starting date for purposes of priority is 1 May 1753, the publication of _Species Plantarum_ by Linnaeus. However, to avoid undesirable (destabilizing) effects of strict enforcement of priority,conservation of family, genus, and species names is possible. The intent of the Code is that each taxonomic group ("taxon", plural "taxa") of plants has only one correct name that is accepted worldwide, provided that it has the same circumscription, position and rank.[1]:Principle IV The value of a scientific name is that it is an identifier; it is not necessarily of descriptive value. Names of taxa are treated as Latin. The rules of nomenclature are retroactive unless there is an explicit statement that this does not apply. [edit]History The rules governing botanical nomenclature have a long and tumultuous history, dating back to dissatisfaction with rules that were established in 1843 to govern zoological nomenclature.[3] The first set of international rules was the _Lois de la nomenclature botanique_ ("Laws of botanical nomenclature") that was adopted as the "best guide to follow for botanical nomenclature"[3] at an "International Botanical Congress" convened in Paris in 1867.[4][5] Unlike modern codes, it was not enforced. It was organized as six sections with 68 articles in total. Multiple attempts to bring more "expedient" or more equitable practice to botanical nomenclature resulted in several competing codes, which finally reached a compromise with the 1930 congress.[3] In the meantime, the second edition of the international rules followed the Vienna congress in 1905. These rules were published as the _Règles internationales de la Nomenclature botanique adoptées par le Congrès International de Botanique de Vienne 1905_ (or in English, _International rules of Botanical Nomenclature adopted by the International Botanical Conference of Vienna 1905_). Informally they are referred to as the_Vienna Rules_ (not to be confused with the _Vienna Code_).[1]:Preface Some but not all subsequent meetings of the International Botanical Congress have produced revised versions of these _Rules_, later called the _International Code of Botanical Nomenclature_. Some important versions are listed below.

Year of adoption

Informal name

1905

_Vienna Rules_

1935

_Cambridge Rules_

1952

_Stockholm Code_

1969

_Seattle Code_

1975

_Leningrad Code_

1981

_Sydney Code_

1987

_Berlin Code_

1993

_Tokyo Code_

1999

_St Louis Code, The Black Code_

2005

_Vienna Code_

2011

_Melbourne Code_

The Nomenclature Section held just before the 18th International Botanical Congress in Melbourne, Australia in July 2011 saw sweeping changes to the way scientists name new plants, algae, and fungi.[6][7][8] For the first time in history the _Code_ now permits electronic-only publication of names of new taxa; no longer will it be a requirement to deposit some paper copies in libraries. The requirement for a Latin validating diagnosis or description was changed to allow either English or Latin for these essential components of the publication of a new name. "One fungus, one name" and "one fossil, one name" are important changes for fungi and for fossils; the concepts of _anamorph_ and _teleomorph_ (for fungi) as well as _morphotaxa_ (for fossils) have been eliminated. As an experiment with "registration of names", new fungal descriptions will require the use of an identifier from "a recognized repository"; there are two recognized repositories so far, Index Fungorum[9] andMycoBank. The title of the _Code_ was broadened to make explicit that it applies not only to plants, but also to algae and fungi. [edit]See also Specific to botany Author citation (botany) Botanical name Botanical nomenclature International Association for Plant Taxonomy International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants International Plant Names Index Correct name (botany) Infraspecific name (botany) More general Binomial nomenclature Hybrid name Nomenclature codes Scientific classification [edit]References ^ _**a**_ _**b**_ _**c**_ _**d**_ _**e**_ _**f**_ _**g**_ McNeill, J.; Barrie, F. R.; Burdet, H. M. et al., eds. (2006), _International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Vienna Code) Adopted by the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress, Vienna, Austria, July 2005_ (electronic ed.), Vienna: International Association for Plant Taxonomy, retrieved 2011-02-20. Note that as the _ICN_ is not yet online, all references are to the previous _Vienna Code_. Knapp, S.; McNeill, J.; Turland, N.J. (2011). "Changes to publication requirements made at the XVIII International Botanical Congress in Melbourne - what does e-publication mean for you?". _PhytoKeys_ **6** (0): 5–11.doi:10.3897/phytokeys.6.1960. ^ _**a**_ _**b**_ _**c**_ Nicolson, D.H. (1991). "A History of Botanical Nomenclature". _Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden_ **78** (1): 33–56. JSTOR 2399589. Alphonse Pyramus de Candolle (1867). _Lois de la nomenclature botanique adoptées par le Congrès International de Botanique tenu à Paris en août 1867 suivies d'une deuxième édition de l'introduction historique et du commentaire qui accompagnaient la rédaction préparatoire présentée à la congrès_. Genève et Bale: J.-B. Baillière et fils. Alphonse Pyramus de Candolle (1868). _Laws of Botanical Nomenclature adopted by the International Botanical Congress held at Paris in August 1867; together with an Historical Introduction and Commentary by Alphonse de Candolle, Translated from the French_. translated by Hugh Algernon Weddell. London: L. Reeve and Co. Miller JS, Funk VA, Wagner WL, Barrie F, Hoch PC, Herendeen P (2011). "Outcomes of the 2011 Botanical Nomenclature Section at the XVIII International Botanical Congress". _PhytoKeys_ **5**: 1–3.doi:10.3897/phytokeys.5.1850. John McNeill, 2011. Important decisions of the Nomenclature Section of the XVIII International Botanical Congress, Melbourne, 18–22 July 2011. _Botanical Electronic News_, ISSN=1188-603X, 441 Botanists finally ditch Latin and paper, enter 21st century, Hannah Waters, Scientific American blog, December 28, 2011 "Index Fungorum Registration".

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Botany

Subdisciplines of botany

Ethnobotany

Paleobotany

Plant anatomy

Plant ecology

Plant evo-devo

Plant morphology

Plant physiology

Plants

Evolutionary history of plants

Algae

Bryophyte

Pteridophyte

Gymnosperm

Angiosperm

Plant parts

Flower

Fruit

Leaf

Meristem

Root

Stem

Stoma

Vascular tissue

Wood

Plant cells

Cell wall

Chlorophyll

Chloroplast

Photosynthesis

Plant hormone

Plastid

Transpiration

Plant reproduction

Alternation of generations

Gametophyte

Plant sexuality

Pollen

Pollination

Seed

Spore

Sporophyte

Plant taxonomy

Botanical name

Botanical nomenclature

Herbarium

IAPT

**ICN**

_Species Plantarum_

Glossaries

Glossary of botanical terms

Glossary of plant morphology terms

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Categories: Botanical nomenclature Classification systems Nomenclature

Penicillin is one of the earliest discovered and widely used antibioticagents, derived from the Penicillium mold. Antibiotics are natural substances that are released by bacteria and fungi into the their environment, as a means of inhibiting other organisms - it is chemical warfare on a microscopic scale. Sir Alexander Fleming Alexander Fleming born August. 6, 1881 , Darvel, Scotland died March 11, 1955 , London, England In 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming observed that colonies of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus could be destroyed by the mold Penicillium notatum, proving that there was an antibacterial agent there in principle. This principle later lead to medicines that could kill certain types of disease-causing bacteria inside the body. At the time, however, the importance of Alexander Fleming's discovery was not known. Use of penicillin did not begin until the 1940s when Howard Florey and Ernst Chain isolated the active ingredient and developed a powdery form of the medicine. History of Penicillin Originally noticed by a French medical student, Ernest Duchesne, in 1896. Penicillin was re-discovered by bacteriologist Alexander Fleming working at St. Mary's Hospital in London in 1928. He observed that a plate culture of Staphylococcus had been contaminated by a blue-green mold and that colonies of bacteria adjacent to the mold were being dissolved. Curious, Alexander Fleming grew the mold in a pure culture and found that it produced a substance that killed a number of disease-causing bacteria. Naming the substance penicillin, Dr. Fleming in 1929 published the results of his investigations, noting that his discovery might have therapeutic value if it could be produced in quantity. Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Hodgkin used x-rays to find the structural layouts of atoms and the overall molecular shape of over 100 molecules including penicillin. Dorothy's discovery of the molecular layout of penicillin helped lead scientists to develop other antibiotics. Dr. Howard Florey It was not until 1939 that Dr. Howard Florey, a future Nobel Laureate, and three colleagues at Oxford University began intensive research and were able to demonstrate penicillin's ability to kill infectious bacteria. As the war with Germany continued to drain industrial and government resources, the British scientists could not produce the quantities of penicillin needed for clinical trials on humans and turned to the United States for help. They were quickly referred to the Peoria Lab where scientists were already working on fermentation methods to increase the growth rate of fungal cultures. One July 9, 1941, Howard Florey and Norman Heatley, Oxford University Scientists came to the U.S. with a small but valuable package containing a small amount of penicillin to begin work. Pumping air into deep vats containing corn steep liquor (a non-alcoholic by-product of the wet milling process) and the addition of other key ingredients was shown to produce faster growth and larger amounts of penicillin than the previous surface-growth method. Ironically, after a worldwide search, it was a strain of penicillin from a moldy cantaloupe in a Peoria market that was found and improved to produce the largest amount of penicillin when grown in the deep vat, submerged conditions. Andrew J. Moyer By November 26, 1941, Andrew J. Moyer, the lab's expert on the nutrition of molds, had succeeded, with the assistance of Dr. Heatley, in increasing the yields of penicillin 10 times. In 1943, the required clinical trials were performed and penicillin was shown to be the most effective antibacterial agent to date. Penicillin production was quickly scaled up and available in quantity to treat Allied soldiers wounded on D-Day. As production was increased, the price dropped from nearly priceless in 1940, to $20 per dose in July 1943, to $0.55 per dose by 1946. As a result of their work, two members of the British group were awarded the Nobel Prize. Dr. Andrew J. Moyer from the Peoria Lab was inducted into the Inventors Hall of Fame and both the British and Peoria Laboratories were designated as International Historic Chemical Landmarks. Andrew J Moyer Patent On May 25, 1948, Andrew J Moyer was granted a patent for a method of the mass production of penicillin. Resistance to Penicillin Four years after drug companies began mass-producing penicillin in 1943, microbes began appearing that could resist it. The first bug to battle penicillin was Staphylococcus aureus. This bacterium is often a harmless passenger in the human body, but it can cause illness, such as pneumonia or toxic shock syndrome, when it overgrows or produces a toxin. Although their names — ringworm, jock itch, and athlete's foot — may sound funny, if you're a teen with one of these skin infections, you're probably not laughing. If you've ever had one, you know that all of these can produce some pretty unpleasant symptoms. The good news is that **tinea**, the name for this category of common skin infections, is generally easy to treat. The Basics on Tinea Infections Tinea (pronounced: **tih**-nee-uh) is the medical name for a group of related skin infections, including athlete's foot, jock itch, and ringworm. They're caused by several types of mold-like fungicalled **dermatophytes** (pronounced: der-**mah**-tuh-fites) that live on the dead tissues of the skin, hair, and nails. What Is Ringworm? Ringworm, which isn't a worm at all, can affect not only the skin, but also the nails and scalp. Ringworm of the skin starts as a red, scaly patch or bump. Ringworm tends to be very itchy and uncomfortable. Over time, it may begin to look like a ring or a series of rings with raised, bumpy, scaly borders (the center is often clear). This ring pattern gave ringworm its name, but not every person who's infected develops the rings. When ringworm affects the feet it's known as athlete's foot, and the rash, which is usually between a person's toes, appears patchy. In fact, the rashes a person gets with athlete's foot and jock itch may not look like rings at all — they may be red, scaly patches. Ringworm of the scalp may start as a small sore that resembles a pimple before becoming patchy, flaky, or scaly. It may cause some hair to fall out or break into stubbles. It can also cause the place where the infection is to become swollen, tender, and red. Ringworm of the nails may affect one or more nails on a person's hands or feet. The nails may become thick, white or yellowish, and brittle. Ringworm of the nails is not too common before puberty, though. Can I Prevent Ringworm? The most common sources of the fungi that cause tinea infections are other people. Ringworm is contagious and is easily spread from one person to another, so avoid touching an infected area on another person. It's also possible to become infected from contact with animals, like cats and dogs. It can be difficult to avoid ringworm because the dermatophyte fungi are very common. To protect yourself against infection, it can help to wear flip-flops on your feet in the locker room shower or at the pool, and to wash sports clothing regularly. Because fungi are on your skin, it's important to shower after contact sports and to wash your hands often, especially after touching pets. If you discover a red, patchy, itchy area that you think may be ringworm, call your doctor. How Is Ringworm Treated? Fortunately, ringworm is fairly easy to diagnose and treat. Doctors usually can diagnose ringworm based on how it looks, but sometimes will scrape off a small sample of the flaky infected skin to test for fungus. If you do have ringworm, your doctor will recommend an antifungal medication. A topical ointment or cream usually takes care of skin infections, but ringworm of the scalp or nails requires oral antifungal medication. Your doctor will decide which treatment is best for you. witch one did you think i was here are some pics

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	2. Chapter 2

There are 100 trillion cells in your body, but 90% of the genetic material is not yours. It is from the bacteria, fungi, viruses and other microorganisms, i.e. your microflora. Gut microbes are big in the news lately, as researchers continue to discover the important roles these tiny organisms play in your overall health and well-being. We now know that your microflora influence your: Genetic expression Immune system Weight, and Risk of numerous chronic and acute diseases, from diabetes to cancer Most recently, research has shown that a certain set of these microbes may actually influence the activity of genes in your brain – and the parts they play are not small parts. They may work to manipulate your behavior, and your memory as well. Microbes Manipulate Your Mind According to a recent article in _The Guardian_1, certain species of gut bacteria have been found to influence gene activity in your brain. Some of this research was published in 2011.2 Mice lacking gut bacteria were found to engage in "high-risk behavior," and this altered behavior was accompanied by neurochemical changes in the mouse brain. According to the authors, microbiota (your gut flora) may play a role in the communication between your gut and your brain, and: _"Acquisition of intestinal microbiota in the immediate postnatal period has a defining impact on the development and function of the gastrointestinal, immune, neuroendocrine and metabolic systems. For example, the presence of gut microbiota regulates the set point for hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity."_ But they also discovered other differences between the mice with normal gut flora and those lacking gut bacteria. When examining the animals' brains, they discovered a number of genetic alterations in the germ-free mice. According to_The Guardian_: _"Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) was significantly up-regulated, and the 5HT1A serotonin receptor sub-type down-regulated, in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. The gene encoding the NR2B subunit of the NMDA receptor was also down-regulated in the amygdala._ _All three genes have previously been implicated in emotion and anxiety-like behaviors._ _BDNF is a growth factor that is essential for proper brain development, and a recent study showed that deleting the BDNF receptor TrkB alters the way in which newborn neurons integrate into hippocampal circuitry and increases anxiety-like behaviors in mice. Serotonin receptors, which are distributed widely throughout the brain, are well known to be involved in mood, and compounds that activate the 5HT1A subtype also produce anxiety-like behaviors._ _The finding that the NR2B subunit of the NMDA receptor down-regulated in the amygdala is particularly interesting. NMDA receptors are composed of multiple subunits, but those made up of only NR2B subunits are known to be critical for the development and function of the amygdala, which has a well established role in fear and other emotions, and in learning and memory. Drugs that block these receptors have been shown to block the formation of fearful memories and to reduce the anxiety associated with alcohol withdrawal in rodents."_ Your Gut Bacteria Are Under Constant Assault Your lifestyle can and does influence your gut flora on a daily basis. For example, your gut bacteria are extremely sensitive to: Antibiotics Chlorinated water Antibacterial soap Agricultural chemicals Pollution All of these common exposures can wreak havoc on the makeup of bacteria in your gut, but researchers are now increasingly looking at the cascading ill effects of antibiotics in particular. Not only are antibiotics overused in medicine, the vast majority of these drugs enter you via livestock – you consume antibiotics every time you eat meat from an animal raised in a confined animal feeding operation (CAFO). In fact, about 80 percent of all the antibiotics produced are used in agriculture3 – not only to fight infection, but to _promote unhealthy (though profitable) weight gain in the animals_. Early Use of Antibiotics Also Linked to Obesity With that in mind, is it any wonder that researchers are now finding that antibiotics are associated with weight gain in humans as well? _"For many years now, farmers have known that antibiotics are great at producing heavier cows for market," _Dr. Jan Blustein, MD, PhD, professor of population health and medicine told in a recent article.4_ "While we need more research to confirm our findings, this carefully conducted study suggests that antibiotics influence weight gain in humans, and especially children..."_ According to _The Washington Post_:5 _"The use of antibiotics in young children might lead to a higher risk of obesity, and two new studies, one on mice and one on humans, conclude that changes of the intestinal bacteria caused by antibiotics could be responsible. Taken together, the New York University researchers conclude that it might be necessary to broaden our concept of the causes of obesity and urge more caution in using antibiotics."_ The first study, published in the journal _Nature_6, found that young mice treated with low doses of common antibiotics gained 10-15 percent more fat than the untreated controls. After surveying the gut bacteria in the mice, they found that mice treated with antibiotics had a different composition of gut bacteria compared to the untreated mice. Specifically, certain species of bacteria previously shown to be associated with obesity were found in higher concentrations in the treated mice. Furthermore, after genetic analysis of the bacteria's metabolism, they discovered that genes responsible for fat synthesis had greater levels of activity in the treated mice. According to lead author Martin Blaser:7 _"The rise of obesity around the world is coincident with widespread antibiotic use, and our studies provide an experimental linkage. It is possible that early exposure to antibiotics primes children for obesity later in life."_ The co-author Dr Ilseung Cho added:8 _"By using antibiotics, we found we can actually manipulate the population of bacteria and alter how they metabolize certain nutrients. Ultimately, we were able to affect body composition and development in young mice by changing their gut microbiome through this exposure."_ The second study, published in the _International Journal of Obesity_9, aimed to corroborate these findings in human subjects. The study, which included more than 10,000 children, found that treating babies with antibiotics before the age of six months old appears to predispose them to being overweight in childhood. Children exposed to antibiotics between the ages of six to 14 months did not have significantly higher body mass than unexposed children. While this study does not prove causation between antibiotic use in infancy and later obesity, it does show a correlation, and the mechanism appears to be related to the way antibiotics alter your child's gut flora. However, excess weight is not the only, or the worst problem that such imbalance can create. As previously explained by Dr. Natasha Campbell-McBride, children with imbalanced gut flora are more prone to develop neurological disorders, such as ADD/ADHD and various learning disorders. These children are also more prone to vaccine damage. watch?list=PLCAF30F79A5F92FB8&v=GjJhh47Emao&feature=player_embedded

Total Video Length: 1:13:21  
Download Interview Transcript Prebiotics Research Highlighted at American Chemical Society Meeting Increasingly, researchers are finding that proper nutrition is not just about getting the right kind and amount of nutrients needed for biological processes. You also need to nourish these non-human cells in your body, i.e. your gut microflora. This issue was recently raised at the 244th National Meeting & Exposition of the American Chemical Society. According to a recent article in NewHope360:10 _"'Just as people need food to thrive, so do the billions of healthful bacteria that live in our guts, our gastrointestinal tract,' [Robert] Rastall [Phd] explained. 'There's a large and expanding body of scientific evidence that bacteria in the gut play a role in health and disease. Prebiotics are foods that contain nutrients that support the growth and activity of these friendly bacteria.'_ _Rastall contrasted prebiotics to the more familiar probiotics, already being promoted on the labels of food like yogurt and some dietary supplements._ _Probiotic foods actually contain friendly bacteria like Lactobacillus acidophilus believed to release healthful substances as they grow in the GI tract. Prebiotics are indigestible food ingredients that provide no nutrition to people. Their purpose is to nourish the friendly bacteria among the estimated 100 trillion microbes living inside the human GI tract."_ While raised awareness about the importance of prebiotics and probiotics is good news, it comes with the territory that researchers are also working on ways to produce prebiotics that can easily be added to processed foods. Pre- and probiotics are very sensitive to heat, and excessive heat-treatment is a hallmark of most processed foods. It therefore stands to reason that any prebiotic inventions they come up with for the processed foods market will inevitably be of inferior quality, and I strongly recommend avoiding any and all processed foods that proclaim to contain prebiotics or probiotics, and stick with the real thing, i.e. traditionally fermented foods for healthful probiotics, and unprocessed whole foods for prebiotics, such as onions and garlic. Study Finds "Clear Link" Between Inflammation, Bacterial Communities and Cancer Demonstrating just how far-reaching the health impact of the bacterial balance in your gut can be, another recent study claims the key factor behind cancer appears to be ecological rather than genetic.11 Published in the journal _Science__1_2, the study suggests cancer may be due to a chain reaction that starts with inflammation that disrupts your gut ecosystems, allowing pathogens, such as , to invade your gut and cause cellular damage. The presence of was increased by a factor of 100 by inflammation, and 80 percent of germ-free mice infected with developed colorectal cancer, while germ-free mice inoculated with another common gut bacterium remained cancer-free, although these mice, like the others, did develop severe colitis (gut inflammation). According to a press release by the University of North Carolina:13 _"In a series of experiments conducted with mice prone to intestinal inflammation, the researchers found that inflammation itself causes significant simplification in diverse communities of gut microbes and allows new bacterial populations to establish major footholds. Among the bacterial taxa invading the disturbed intestinal ecosystem, the research team found a greatly increased presence of E. coli and related bacteria._ _By putting E. coli bacteria into mice that were raised under sterile conditions, the team also found that the presence of E. coli promoted tumor formation. When regions of the E. coli genome known to be involved in DNA damage were removed, the ability of the E. coli to cause tumors was substantially decreased._ _The researchers noted that the mouse results may have implications for human health as well, as they also found an E. coli variant with the suspect genes in high percentages of human patients with colorectal cancer and irritable bowel disease._ _...'As is usual in human studies, we didn't have cause and effect,' Fodor noted. 'We don't know if microbes are somehow causing conditions to shift in the gut that would cause cancer or if there are conditions that are associated with cancer that would increase the openness of the gut to particular microbes. A shift in the microbial community is associated with inflammation... It is interesting that the microbial community is actually changing with the disease state, which indicates that it is either responding to or contributing to the disease state.'"_ Like Bacteria, Cancer Cells Rely on Communication and Cooperation In related news, an article published in _Trends in Microbiology_14 examines the shared traits of cancer cells and bacteria. Bacteria and cancer cells both use sophisticated communication to gain supremacy within the host. As reported by _Medical News Today_:15 _"Inspired by the social and survival tactics of bacteria, the team presents a new picture of cancer as a meta-community of smart communicating cells possessing special traits for cooperative behavior. Using intricate communication, cancer cells can distribute tasks, share resources, differentiate, and make decisions. Before sending cells to colonize organs and tissues throughout the body (metastasis), 'spying cells' explore the body and return the cancer's origin. Only then do metastatic cells leave the primary tumor and navigate to new posts._ _Also like bacteria, cancer cells change their own environment. They induce genetic changes and enslave surrounding normal cells, forcing them to do the disease's bidding - providing physical support, protecting them from the immune system, and more."_ Three years ago, I posted a TED video featuring Bonnie Bassler, in which she discusses how bacteria "talk" to each otherusing a chemical language that lets them coordinate defense and mount attacks. Cancer cells, as it turns out, employ similar forms of communication, and as discussed by Bassler, these discoveries pave the way for the development of drugs aimed at shutting down or altering cell-to-cell communication. _This is a Flash-based video and may not be viewable on mobile devices._ According to _Medical News Today_: _"The team also suggests further research into cancer 'cannibalism,' when cancer cells may consume their peers when they run out of resources. The idea is to send signals which trigger cancer cells to kill each other, which can be done with bacteria. Other researchers have demonstrated that injected bacteria can 'outsmart cancer.' Bacteria can be used to induce gap junctions between the cancer cells and immune cells, 'teaching' the immune system to recognize and kill the tumor cells."_ The Phenomenal Health Benefits of Fermented Vegetables Cultured or fermented foods have a very long history in virtually all native diets, and have always been highly prized for their health benefits. The advent of processed foods dramatically altered the human diet, and we're now reaping the results in the form of rapidly rising chronic health problems. I believe the shunning of traditionally fermented foods has a lot to do with this. The culturing process produces beneficial microbes that are extremely important for your health as they help balance your intestinal flora. If you do not regularly consume the traditionally fermented foods below, a high-quality probiotic supplement will provide similar benefits: Fermented vegetables Lassi (an Indian yoghurt drink, traditionally enjoyed before dinner) Fermented milk, such as kefir (a quart of _unpasteurized_ kefir has far more active bacteria than you can possibly purchase in any probiotics supplement) Natto (fermented soy) When choosing fermented foods, steer clear of pasteurized versions, as pasteurization will destroy many of the naturally occurring probiotics. This _includes_ most of the "probiotic" yogurts you find in every grocery store these days; since they're pasteurized, they will be associated with all of the problems of pasteurized milk products and they typically contain added sugars, high fructose corn syrup, artificial coloring, or artificial sweeteners, all of which will only worsen your health. Fermented foods are also some of the best chelators and detox agents available, meaning they can help rid your body of a wide variety of toxins, including heavy metals. When you first start out, you'll want to start small, adding as little as half a tablespoon of fermented vegetables to each meal, and gradually working your way up to about a quarter to half a cup (2 oz to 4 oz) of fermented vegetables or other cultured food with one to three meals per day. Since cultured foods are efficient detoxifiers, you may experience detox symptoms, or a "healing crisis," if you introduce too many at once. Learn to Make Your Own Fermented Vegetables Fermented vegetables are easy to make on your own. It's also the most cost-effective way to get high amounts of healthful probiotics in your diet. To learn how, review the following interview with Caroline Barringer, a Nutritional Therapy Practitioner (NTP) and an expert in the preparation of the foods prescribed in Dr. Natasha Campbell-McBride's Gut and Psychology Syndrome (GAPS) Nutritional Program. In addition to the wealth of information shared in this interview, I highly recommend getting the book _Gut and Psychology Syndrome_, which provides all the necessary details for Dr. McBride's GAPS protocol. Although you can use the native bacteria on cabbage and other vegetables, it is typically easier to get consistent results by using a starter culture. Caroline prepares hundreds of quarts of fermented vegetables a week and has found that she gets great results by using three to four high quality probiotic capsules to jump start the fermentation process. Download Interview Transcript Caroline prepares the vegetables commercially and I used hers for a month before I started making my own. So, if you just want to put your toe in the water and see if you like them, you can order a jar or two and try them out. You can find her products on .net or .com. AVOID This to Optimize Your Gut Flora! Along with eating naturally fermented foods and/or taking a high-quality supplement, it's essential that you avoid sugar, including fructose. Sugar nourishes pathogenic bacteria, yeast, and fungi in your gut, which may actually harm you more than its impact on insulin resistance. One of the major results of eating a healthy diet like the one described in my nutrition plan is that you cause your beneficial gut bacteria to flourish, and they secondarily perform the real "magic" of restoring your health. Remember, an estimated 80 percent of your immune system is located in your gut, which is just one more reason why "tending to" your gut microflora is an essential element of good health. A robust immune system, supported by your flourishing inner ecosystem, is your number one defense against ALL disease, from the common cold to cancer. I feel very strongly that if we can catalyze a movement to get more people to implement this ancient dietary wisdom to their normal eating patterns, then we'll start seeing a radical change in health. 


	3. Chapter 3

aberham liken

dear aberham liken you should stop slavery no matter what its harsh and people shouldnt have to go trew it and hard work the slaves have to pick cotten for the white folks the black didnt want to stay inslaved its a harable thing if you where inslaves what would you do would you be races if you where a master and you had colored slaves would you have mercy just ask yourself that befor you take any action just try to have mercy and help them or help abolish slavery its an intense feeling getting whaped when you really just want to knock that masters teath out now think to your slef president what would you do take all thos whaps or fight back 


	4. Chapter 4

one day i woke up a micro organism i didnt know how made im a phytoplankton

Phytoplankton: Plants of the Sea by Prentice K. Stout  
P637 To the casual observer, the oceans and bays are vast trackless bodies of water. Beneath their surfaces are countless fish. But more numerous by far are the tiny microscopic animals and plants collectively called plankton, a word derived from the Greek meaning wandering. The plant portion of this complex oceanic soup is called phytoplankton. The term phyto comes from the Latin phyton meaning tree or plant. This large grouping is composed mostly of single-celled algae and bacteria. It is known that green plants liberate oxygen and produce carbohydrates, a basic link in the food chain of plants to animals to people. Collectively, this chemical process is referred to as photosynthesis (photo = light, synthesis = to make). In these tiny food factories, there is a chemical compound called chlorophyll that, in combination with sunlight, converts carbon dioxide, water, and minerals into edible carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Thus, these phytoplankton are the basis for the oceanic food chain. Animals cannot perform this biological food-making process. Two-thirds of all the photosynthesis that takes place on this earth occurs in the oceans that yearly create 80 to 160 billion tons of carbohydrates. So numerous are these tiny plant forms that they often turn the water green, brown, or reddish. Among the most abundant phytoplankton are the diatoms. Some 20,000 species make up this plant group. They consist of a tiny blob of protoplasm enclosed in a transparent pill-box structure made of silica. This silica, the main ingredient of glass, is extracted from the surrounding seawater. Minute holes or pores in their shells permit nutrient absorption and an exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen to take place with the surrounding seawater. Under favorable conditions, a single diatom can reproduce 100 million offspring in a month. Clearly, such reproductive capacity creates vast numbers - as many as a billion of them in a gallon of seawater. Those that are not eaten die and their virtually indestructible shells settle to the bottom of the ocean. In some areas of the sea, their skeletal remains form layers up to 700-feet thick. This diatomaceous earth has been used as a fine abrasive in toothpaste and automobile polish. A drop of oil within the protoplasm in the shell may have created the earth's petroleum supply. This oil in the diatom is eaten by a number of small fish; one is called the capelin, which, in turn, are eaten by codfish. From the codfish bodies come cod liver oil detested by some, but rich in vitamins A and D. While diatoms are essentially cool water inhabitants, their counterparts in tropical waters are called dinoflagellates. Equipped with whip-like projections, they propel themselves about in a jerky motion. Dr. C.P. Idyll, noted oceanographer, states, "The various species of dinoflagellates resemble chinese hats, carnival masks, children's tops, urns, pots, and vessels of many kinds, the spiky knobs of medieval war clubs, balloons on strings, hand grenades or lances." Flagellates, like diatoms, are proficient in their ability to reproduce. By splitting in half, a dinoflagellate can reproduce thirty-three million offspring in only twenty-five divisions. One species of dinoflagellate, Gonyaulax, whose excessive reproductive ability can create havoc, produces the "red tide." In the seventh chapter of the Book of Exodus, the people of Egypt were plagued with what could have been an outbreak of the red tide. Charles Darwin, on his around the world voyage on the Beagle, wrote one of the first scientific accounts of a dinoflagellate outbreak that discolored the waters off Chile. Another interesting dinoflagellate, if disturbed, emits light in the form of bioluminescence. Called Noctiluca, this small organism combines two chemicals, luciferin and luciferase (Latin: lucifer = "bearer of light"). This is the same combination of chemicals that gives our familiar firefly its ability to blink during warm summer evenings. A simple tool can be used to study these plant forms. One needs a coat hanger that has been worked into a circle. Then over this frame stretch a pair of discarded pantyhose. Cut off the legs of these stockings just below the knee and place a small plastic pill jar in the openings. Tightly wind some thread around the fabric and the mouth of the jars and then tow it through the water. The fine mesh stocking of the pantyhose will capture may of these small plant forms as well as their animal counterparts. (See fact sheet on zooplankton.) A hand lens or microscope will assist in the viewing of these fascinating organisms. orafungi Fungi Eumycota: mushrooms, sac fungi, yeast, molds, rusts, smuts, etc. Meredith Blackwell, Rytas Vilgalys, Timothy Y. James, and John W. Taylor

Phylogeny modified from James et al., 2006a, 2006b; Liu et al., 2006; Seif et al., 2005; Steenkamp et al., 2006.

Containing group: Eukaryotes

Introduction The organisms of the fungal lineage include mushrooms, rusts, smuts, puffballs, truffles, morels, molds, and yeasts, as well as many less well-known organisms (Alexopoulos et al., 1996). More than 70,000 species of fungi have been described; however, some estimates of total numbers suggest that 1.5 million species may exist (Hawksworth, 1991; Hawksworth et al., 1995). As the sister group of animals and part of the eukaryotic crown group that radiated about a billion years ago, the fungi constitute an independent group equal in rank to that of plants and animals. They share with animals the ability to export hydrolytic enzymes that break down biopolymers, which can be absorbed for nutrition. Rather than requiring a stomach to accomplish digestion, fungi live in their own food supply and simply grow into new food as the local environment becomes nutrient depleted. Most biologists have seen dense filamentous fungal colonies growing on rich nutrient agar plates, but in nature the filaments can be much longer and the colonies less dense. When one of the filaments contacts a food supply, the entire colony mobilizes and reallocates resources to exploit the new food. Should all food become depleted, sporulation is triggered. Although the fungal filaments and spores are microscopic, the colony can be very large with individuals of some species rivaling the mass of the largest animals or plants.

Figure 1: Hyphae of a wood-decaying fungus found growing on the underside of a fallen log. The metabolically active hyphae have secreted droplets on their surfaces. Copyright © M. Blackwell 1996.

Prior to mating in sexual reproduction, individual fungi communicate with other individuals chemically via pheromones. In every phylum at least one pheromone has been characterized, and they range from sesquiterpines and derivatives of the carotenoid pathway in chytridiomycetes and zygomycetes to oligopeptides in ascomycetes and basidiomycetes. Within their varied natural habitats fungi usually are the primary decomposer organisms present. Many species are free-living saprobes (users of carbon fixed by other organisms) in woody substrates, soils, leaf litter, dead animals, and animal exudates. The large cavities eaten out of living trees by wood-decaying fungi provide nest holes for a variety of animals, and extinction of the ivory billed woodpecker was due in large part to loss, through human activity, of nesting trees in bottom land hardwoods. In some low nitrogen environments several independent groups of fungi have adaptations such as nooses and sticky knobs with which to trap and degrade nematodes and other small animals. A number of references on fungal ecology are available (Carroll and Wicklow, 1992; Cooke and Whipps, 1993; Dix and Webster, 1995). However, many other fungi are biotrophs, and in this role a number of successful groups form symbiotic associations with plants (including algae), animals (especially arthropods), and prokaryotes. Examples are lichens, mycorrhizae, and leaf and stem endophytes. Although lichens may seem infrequent in polluted cities, they can form the dominant vegetation in nordic environments, and there is a better than 80% chance that any plant you find is mycorrhizal. Leaf and stem endophytes are a more recent discovery, and some of these fungi can protect the plants they inhabit from herbivory and even influence flowering and other aspects of plant reproductive biology. Fungi are our most important plant pathogens, and include rusts, smuts, and many ascomycetes such as the agents of Dutch elm disease and chestnut blight. Among the other well known associations are fungal parasites of animals. Humans, for example, may succumb to diseases caused by _Pneumocystis _(a type of pneumonia that affects individuals with supressed immune systems), _Coccidioides _(valley fever), _Ajellomyces _(blastomycosis and histoplasmosis), and _Cryptococcus _(cryptococcosis) (Kwon-Chung and Bennett, 1992).

Figure 2: The fluffy white hyphae of the mycorrhizal fungus _Rhizopogon rubescens_ has enveloped the smaller roots of a Virginia pine seedling. Note that some of the mycelium extends out into the surrounding environment. Copyright © J. B. Anderson 1996.

Figure 3: _Entomophthora_, "destroyer of insects", is the agent of a fungual infection that kills flies. After their death the fungal growth erupts through the fly cuticle, and dispersal by forcible spore discharge is a source of inoculum for infection of new flies. Copyright © G. L. Barron 1996.

Fungal spores may be actively or passively released for dispersal by several effective methods. The air we breathe is filled with spores of species that are air dispersed. These usually are species that produce large numbers of spores, and examples include many species pathogenic on agricultural crops and trees. Other species are adapted for dispersal within or on the surfaces of animals (particularly arthropods). Some fungi are rain splash or flowing water dispersed. In a few cases the forcible release of spores is sufficient to serve as the dispersal method as well. The function of some spores is not primarily for dispersal, but to allow the organisms to survive as resistant cells during periods when the conditions of the environment are not conducive to growth. Fungi are vital for their ecosystem functions, some of which we have reviewed in the previous paragraphs. In addition a number of fungi are used in the processing and flavoring of foods (baker's and brewer's yeasts, Penicillia in cheese-making) and in production of antibiotics and organic acids. Other fungi produce secondary metabolites such as aflatoxins that may be potent toxins and carcinogens in food of birds, fish, humans, and other mammals. A few species are studied as model organisms that can be used to gain knowledge of basic processes such as genetics, physiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology with results that are applicable to many organisms (Taylor et al., 1993). Some of the fungi that have been intensively studied in this way include _Saccharomyces cereviseae_, _Neurospora crassa_, and _Ustilago maydis_. Most phyla appear to be terrestrial in origin, although all major groups have invaded marine and freshwater habitats. An exception to this generality is the flagellum-bearing phyla Chytridiomycota, Blastocladiomycota, and Neocallimastigomycota (collectively referred to as chytrids), which probably had an aquatic origin. Extant chytrid species also occur in terrestrial environments as plant pathogenic fungi, soil fungi, and even as anaerobic inhabitants of the guts of herbivores such as cows (all Neocallimastigomycota). Characteristics Fungi are characterized by non-motile bodies (thalli) constructed of apically elongating walled filaments (hyphae), a life cycle with sexual and asexual reproduction, usually from a common thallus, haploid thalli resulting from zygotic meiosis, and heterotrophic nutrition. Spindle pole bodies, not centrioles, usually are associated with the nuclear envelope during cell division. The characteristic wall components are chitin (beta-1,4-linked homopolymers of N-acetylglucosamine in microcrystalline state) and glucans primarily alpha-glucans (alpha-1,3- and alpha-1,6- linkages) (Griffin, 1994).

Figure 4: Portion of a hypha of a zygomycete stained with a blue dye to show the many nuclei present. Many other fungi have septations that devide the hyphae into compartments that usually contain one to several nuclei per compartment. Copyright © M. Blackwell 1996.

Figure 5: Transmission electron micrograph showing duplicated spindle pole body of a prophase I meiotic nucleus of a basidiomycete _Exobasidium_. Only chytrids among fungi have centrioles and lack spindle pole bodies. Copyright © Beth Richardson 1996.

Exceptions to this characterization of fungi are well known, and include the following: Most species of chytrids have cells with a single, smooth, posteriorly inserted flagellum at some stage in the life cycle, and centrioles are associated with nuclear division. The life cycles of almost all flagellated fungi are poorly studied. The thalli of Chytridiomycota have been thought to be haploid, but recent population genetic data support diploidy for one species (Morehouse et al. 2003; Morgan et al. 2007). Most members of Blastocladiomycota appear to have sporic meiosis and, therefore, an alternation between haploid and diploid generations. Certain members of Mucoromycotina, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota may lack hyphal growth during part or all of their life cycles, and, instead, produce budding yeast cells. Most fungal species with yeast growth forms contain only minute amounts of chitin in the walls of the yeast cells. A few species of Ascomycota (Ophiostomataceae) have cellulose in their walls, and certain members of Blastocladiomycota and Entomophthoromycotina lack walls during part of their life cycle (Alexopoulos et al., 1996). Fossil Record Based on the available fossil record, fungi are presumed to have been present in Late Proterozoic (900-570 mya). Terrestrial forms of purported ascomycetes are reported in associations with microarthropods in the Silurian Period (438-408 mya) (Sherwood-Pike and Gray, 1985). Fossil hyphae in association with wood decay and fossil chytrids and Glomales-Endogonales representatives associated with plants of the Rhynie Chert are reported from the Devonian Period (408-360 mya) (Hass et al., 1994; Remy et al., 1994a, 1994b; Taylor et al., 1994a, 1995b). Fungal fossil diversity increased throughout the Paleozoic Era (Taylor et al., 1994b) with all modern classes reported in the Pennsylvanian Epoch (320-286 mya). A first attempt to match molecular data on fungal phylogeny to the geological record shows general agreement, but does point out some conflicts between the two types of data (Berbee and Taylor 1993). Biogeography Wherever adequate moisture, temperature, and organic substrates are available, fungi are present. Although we normally think of fungi as growing in warm, moist forests, many species occur in habitats that are cold, periodically arid, or otherwise seemingly inhospitable. It is important to recognize that optimum conditions for growth and reproduction vary widely with fungal species. Diversity of most groups of fungi tends to increase in tropical regions, but detailed studies are only in their infancy (Isaac et al., 1993). Although many saprobic and plant pathogenic species with low substrate specificity and effective dispersal systems have broad distributions, gene flow appears to be restricted in many fungi. For these species large bodies of water such as the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans create barriers to gene exchange. Some distributions are limited by substrate availability, and dramatic examples come from parasites of Gondowanan plants; one of these is the Southern Hemisphere distribution of the ascomycete Cyttaria, corresponding with part of the distribution of its host plant Nothofagus. The fossil record shows that fungi were present in Antarctica, as is the case for other organisms with Gondwanan distributions. Arthropod associates also may show distributions throughout part or all of a host range, and some fungal species (ex. wood wasp associates) occur outside the range of the associated arthropod. Notable Fungi The largest known basidioma (mushroom or fruiting body) was that of a _Rigidioporus ulmarius_ (Agaricomycetes), hidden-away in a shady corner of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, England. This fruiting body was mentioned in the _Guinness Book of World Records_ (Matthews, 1994). At the beginning of every New Year the Annual Mensuration Ceremony of the fruiting body took place, and on 19 January 1996 it had increased to 170 cm maximum length (up from 159 in 1995) and 146 cm maximum width (up from 140 in 1995). It also grew 4 cm taller from the soil level, measuring 54 cm. The weight of the fruiting body was estimated to be 284 kg (625 pounds)! Amid rumors of its destruction, Dr. Brian M. Spooner, Head of Mycology, Royal Botanic Gardens, has brought us up to date on the fate of the record specimen. Unfortunately, the basidioma began to rot at the edges a few years ago, likely because the hyphal body of the fungus digested away its elm root substrate, reminding us that a fungus needs a good dispersal system to escape the substrate that eventually inevitably is destroyed. In the life of the fruiting body many trillions of spores must have been produced, and some of these surely fell on an appropiate substrate to establish a new infection. The final insult to the fruiting body came from a fox that burrowed under one side and caused it to collapse. Figure 6: The largest basidioma world record holder _Rigidioporus ulmarius_ at Kew when it was still intact. The mushroom is shown in its largest dimension (170 cm or over 5 1/2 feet). Copyright © D. Pegler 1996. Other large basidiomata are those of a Canadian puffball almost 9 feet in circumference (over 48 pounds) and a basidiocarp of the sulfur mushroom in England (100 pounds). A previous_Guinness Book of World Records_ record-sized fruiting body of _Bridgeoporus nobilissimus_, an endangered species of the Pacific Northwest of the United States, is over 160 kg (300 pounds) and may have regained the title of "largest" with the demise of the Kew specimen. This polypore also may do itself in because its great weight is likely to eventually cause it to fall as the mycelium depletes its food source, often the noble fir tree. Reproductive structures clearly can be very large, but what about the body of the fungus, which often is hidden from view within the substrate? One fungus body constructed of tubular filaments (hyphae) was brought to our attention when molecular techniques were used to show that it was extensive (37 acres and an estimated blue whale equivalent size of 110 tons). The Michigan fungus clone (_Armillaria bulbosa_, Agaricomycetes) grew in tree roots and soil. This report drew attention to an even larger fungal clone of _Armillaria ostoyae_, reported earlier in the state of Washington, which covered over 1,500 acres. Each clone began from the germination of a single spore over a thousand years ago. Although they probably have fragmented and are no longer continuous bodies, such organisms give us cause to think about what constitutes an individual. _Penicillium chrysogenum_ (Ascomycota) is known for its production of the antibiotic penicillin. Although other antibiotics are produced by a variety of organisms, penicillin was the first to be developed. In the spring of 1996 a long dried out culture of the original isolate prepared by its discoverer, Sir Alexander Fleming in the late 1920s, was auctioned by Sotheby's of London and sold to a pharmaceutical company for 23,000 pounds. This price is insignificant when one considers the worth of this fungus, not only in sales of penicillin, but in terms of illnesses cured and lives saved. In the past a simple scratch or blister sometimes could result in a fatal infection such as the blister that resulted in the death of John Calvin Coolidge (1918-1924), the son of a U. S. president. However, misuse of penicillin and other antibiotics has resulted in selection of resistant microorganisms, and the threat of untreatable bacterial infections and diseases (for example_Staphylococcus aureus_ and _Escherichia coli_ and tuberculosis and syphilis) is still present in our homes and recreation areas. Fungal spores fill the air we breathe. On many days in some localities the number of fungal spores in the air far exceeds the pollen grains. Fungal spores also cause allergies; however, unlike seasonal pollen production, some fungi can produce spores all year long. The largest number of fungal spores ever sampled was over 5.5 million per cubic foot in Wales (Matthews, 1994). Basidiomycetes have always attracted a lot of attention because some of them have large basidiocarps, but the realization that all fungi are important in ecosystem function has drawn more attention to microscopic forms as well. For example a report on the secret sex life of a yeast-like ascomycete human pathogen, _Coccidioides immitis_, made a headline of the New York Times (6 February 1996, p. B7). This fungus causes Valley Fever and is endemic in parts of the southwestern United States. Although no one has been able to observe sexual reproduction in this species, molecular studies show genetic diversity that is best explained by occurrence of sexual reproduction in the life cycle. Another yeast-like ascomycete reported in the Dallas Morning News (28 August 1995, p. 8D) lives in the gut of cigar beetles and is essential to the beetle's health. Without the gut fungi to detoxify the plant material of toxins, the beetles would be poisoned. Keep on the lookout for other reports of fascinating fungal feats. Discussion of Phylogenetic Relationships The kingdom Fungi is a diverse clade of heterotrophic organisms that shares some characters with animals such as chitinous structures, storage of glycogen, and mitochondrial codon UGA encoding tryptophan. Both animals and fungi have spores or gametes with a single smooth, posteriorly inserted flagellum, but only species of the basal chytrid phyla have retained this primitive character (Barr, 1992; Cavalier-Smith, 1987, 1995). Fungi, animals, and other heterotrophic protist-like organisms such as choanoflagellates and Mesomycetozoea are now considered part of the larger group termed opisthokonts (Cavalier-Smith, 1987) in reference to the posterior flagellum. The branch uniting the fungi and animals is well-supported based on a number of molecular phylogenetic datasets, including the nuclear small subunit ribosomal RNA gene (Wainwright et al., 1993; Bruns et al. 1993), unique and shared sequence insertions in proteins such as elongation factor 1α (Baldauf and Palmer, 1993), entire mitochondrial genomes (Lang et al., 2002), and concatenated protein-coding genes (Steenkamp et al., 2006). Prior classification systems of Fungi based primarily on morphology are in need of updating to more accurately reflect phylogenetic relationships as determined by molecular systematics. Molecular characters have been essential for phylogenetic analysis in cases when morphological characters are convergent, reduced, or missing among the taxa considered. This is especially true of species that never reproduce sexually, because characters of sexual reproduction traditionally have been the basis for classification of Fungi. Use of molecular characters allows asexual fungi to be placed among their closest relatives. Previous classifications placed early-diverging fungal groups (non-Ascomycota or Basidiomycota) into two phyla: Chytridiomycota and Zygomycota. Numerous phylogenetic studies now suggest that neither is monophyletic, and the latest classification scheme includes six phyla and an additional four unplaced subphyla (Hibbett et al., 2007). At present, because of the ancient divergence times between the fungal phyla, the exact phylogenetic relationships are ambiguous. Chytrids appear to be a paraphyletic group at the base of the fungal phylogeny and merely fungal lineages which have retained the character of flagellated spores. Three phyla of flagellated fungi are proposed (Blastocladiomycota, Chytridiomycota, and Neocallimastigomycota; Hibbett et al., 2007) and two chytrid genera _Olpidium_ and _Rozella_, are of uncertain phylogenetic position (James et al., 2006a, 2006b). These genera are interesting because they are both highly reduced endoparasites (living inside the host cell) whose entire thallus consists of only a spherical body absorbing nutrients from the host material that surrounds it. _Rozella_ appears in an isolated position in the fungal phylogeny as the very earliest lineage to diverge from the rest of the fungi (James et al., 2006a, 2006b). In contrast, _Olpidium brassicae_ appears to have diverged after the majority of chytrids and is more closely related to some zygomycete fungi (James et al., 2006a, 2006b). Figure 7: The endoparasitic chytrid _Rozella allomycis_ inside the hyphae of another chytrid _Allomyces_. Thick spiny spores of the parasite are seen inside some cells while zoospores are produced in other cells. © Timothy Y. James Fungi with non-septate or irregularly septate hyphae and thick-walled spores were traditionally placed in the phylum Zygomycota. However, evidence for a monophyletic Zygomycota is lacking (Seif et al., 2005), and the deconstruction of the Zygomycota into four unordered subphyla (Entomophthoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, Mucoromycotina, Zoopagomycotina) has been proposed (Hibbett et al., 2007). The separation of the superficially similar arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (that lack septa in hyphae but also lack zygospores) into the phylum Glomeromycota has been previously proposed (Schüßler et al., 2001). Whether this phylum is more closely related to the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota lineage or to other zygomycete lineages is controversial (Redecker et al., 2006). Evidence from shared morphological characters such as regularly septate hyphae and a dikaryotic stage (two separate and different nuclei in a single hyphal segment) in the life cycle usually has been interpreted as support for a close relationship between Basidiomycota and Ascomycota. Numerous phylogenetic studies such as SSU rDNA (Berbee and Taylor, 1992), RNA polymerase genes (Liu et al., 2006), and mitochondrial genome sequencing (Seif et al., 2005) provide strong support for this relationship. A subkingdom termed Dikarya is proposed (Hibbett et al., 2007), creating a division between a highly speciose subkingdom (Dikarya) and the remaining early diverging lineages whose relationships are not precisely known. Fungal classification is far from static, and even which organisms are actually members of Fungi is changing. For example, the group trichomycetes describes gut inhabitants of arthropods that share similarities with zygomycetes. Molecular phylogenetic studies have demonstrated that two of the four orders of trichomycetes are actually members of the Mesomycetozoea protist group (Benny and O'Donnell, 2000; Cafaro, 2005). Other organisms that were previously considered to be Fungi because of their heterotrophic, mold-like growth forms are now classified as stramenopiles (Oomycota, Hyphochytriomycota, and Labyrinthulomycota) or slime molds (Myxomycota, Plasmodiomycota, Dictyosteliomycota, Acrasiomycota) (Bhattacharya et al., 1992; Leipe et al., 1994; Van der Auwera et al., 1995). More interesting for mycologists are the findings that some species previously considered protozoa are actually Fungi. For example, the species _Hyaloraphidium curvatum_ was assumed to be a green alga that had adopted a heterotrophic lifecycle concomitantly with losing its chloroplast. It is now known to be a chytrid fungus related to Monoblephariomycetes but lacking a flagellated stage (Ustinova et al., 2000). Other examples include the parasitic organisms presumed to be protozoa, such as the cockroach parasite _Nepridiophaga_ (Wylezich et al., 2004) and the _Daphnia_parasite _Polycarum_ (Johnson et al., 2006) recently demonstrated to be members of the fungal kingdom based on SSU rDNA phylogenies. The most revolutionary addition to the fungal lineage has occurred with phylogenetic evidence indicating the protist group microsporidia is closely related to Fungi–possibly derived from zygomycetes (Keeling, 2003) or sister to the genus _Rozella_ on the earliest branch in the fungal kingdom (James et al., 2006a). Microsporidia are highly specialized intracellular parasites (primarily of animals) that lack mitochondria but have chitin and trehalose in their spores (similar to Fungi). All molecular studies have shown that microsporidia evolve at an extremely accelerated rate of evolution, making their placement in the Tree of Life difficult. The relationship with fungi is supported by many single and multiple gene phylogenies (e.g., Liu et al., 2006), but an exact placement within the fungi has not received strong support (Keeling and Fast, 2002). More recently the nuclearid amoebae have been demonstrated to be a sister group to the Fungi with strong support (Steenkamp et al., 2006). This finding is significant because _Nuclearia_ lacks a cell wall and has phagotrophic nutrition in which the food source (such as a bacterium or algal cell) is engulfed wholly, unlike fungi and microsporidia which utilize absorptive nutrition. Further sampling of basal fungal lineages will be needed to determine whether a _Nuclearia_-like organism was the cenancestor (most recent common ancestor) of Fungi.

Other Names for Fungi Mycota Eumycota

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Information on the Internet Popular Sites MykoWeb. WWW pages devoted to the science of mycology and the hobby of mushrooming. Mycological Society of San Francisco. North America's largest local amateur mycological association. Mushroom Observer. The purpose of this site is to record observations about mushrooms, help people identify mushrooms they aren't familiar with, and expand the community around the scientific exploration of mushrooms (mycology). The Fungal Jungal. To further educate people about fungi, edible and otherwise, To encourage sustainable and responsible mushroom harvest, and preserve mushroom habitat. Tom Volk's Fungi. Dave Fischer's North American Mushroom Basics. . Forest Fungi. Pilze, Pilze, Pilze. In deutsch. Westfälischen Pilzbriefe. In deutsch. Micologi Associati. Nell'italiano. Directories, Databases & Collections The WWW Virtual Library: Mycology. A well indexed entrance to almost all mycology and fungal biology resources on the Internet. . An internet site containing information about diversity of fungi. Mycorrhiza Information Exchange. Mycology Online. A WWW resource of clinically significant mycological information. Yahoo Mycology. Mycologists Online. World-wide directory for mycology and lichenology. Fungal Databases. Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Agricultural Research Service. United States Department of Agriculture. Beltsville, Maryland, USA. The Fifth Kingdom online. A mycological encyclopedia. Mycological and Lichenological Collection Catalogs. UCMP Berkeley. University of Alberta Microfungus Collection & Herbarium (UAMH). University of Michigan Fungus Collection. Mycological Herbarium. The Natural History Museums and Botanical Garden, University of Oslo. Herbarium Mycologicum. National Botanic Garden of Belgium. Index Fungorum. Names of fungi. Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS). Fungal Biodiversity Center - Utrecht, The Netherlands. Fungal Genetics Stock Center. Canadian Collection of Fungal Cultures. Images Treasures from the Kingdom of Fungi. Taylor Lockwood's mushroom photography. Fungi Images on the Net. Fungi, Moulds and Lichens. BioImages: The Virtual Field-Guide (UK). George Barron's Website on Mushrooms and other Fungi. Eileen's Mushroom Mania. Nathan's Fungi Page. Pamela's Mushrooms. Research Labs & Projects Deep Hypha. NSF-funded Research Coordination Network (RCN) that is focused on developing robust phylogenetic hypotheses for the deep branches within Kingdom Fungi and enhanced research and educational tools in fungal systematics. AFTOL: Assembling the Fungal Tree of Life. Collaborative research in fungal phylogenetics. Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Agricultural Research Service. United States Department of Agriculture. Beltsville, Maryland, USA. Forest Mycology and Mycorrhiza Research Team. Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Corvallis, OR, USA. Cornell Center for Fungal Biology (CCFB). IUCN SSC Fungi Specialist Group Website. Mycology at Louisiana State University. Meredith Blackwell's lab. Bruns Lab. University of California at Berkeley. Ecology and evolution of fungi. Spatafora Lab. Oregon State University. Systematics and evolutionary biology of fungi. Taylor Lab. University of California at Berkeley. Evolutionary relationships of fungi, concentrating on the fungi that cause human disease. Thorn Lab. University of Western Ontario. Fungal ecology and systematics. Vilgalys Lab. Duke University. Natural history of fungi, including all aspects of their evolutionary biology, population genetics, and systematics. MycoSite. University of Oslo, Norway. University of Georgia Mycology. University of Tennessee Mycology Lab. Fungal Mitochondrial Genome Project (FMGP). B. Franz Lang, Université de Montréal. Fungimap Australia. A collaborative project between professional and amateur mycologists and naturalists to gather information about the distribution of fungi throughout Australia. The Fungi of New Zealand. Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research. MycoKey. Thomas Læssøe & Jens H. Petersen, University of Aarhus. Comparative Studies on the Macrofungi of China and Eastern North America. Qiuxin Wu & Gregory M. Mueller, The Field Museum, Chicago. Survey of Northern Illinois and Indiana Fungi. John F. Murphy & Gregory M. Mueller. The Field Museum, Chicago. Macrofungi of Costa Rica. Roy E. Halling & Gregory M. Mueller. The Fungi of Kenya. Malawi Fungi. Moulds. Isolation, Cultivation, Identification. David Malloch, Department of Botany, University of Toronto. Professional Societies The International Mycological Association. A group that represents mycologists and fungal biologists throughout the world. British Mycological Society. Mycological Society of America. Asociación Latinoamericana de Micología. Australasian Mycological Society. The International Society for Mushroom Science. To further the cultivation of edible (including medicinal) macrofungi. Translations Ukrainian Translation.

Title Illustrations

Scientific Name

Chytridium (Chytridiomycota)

Comments

Individual growing on a single pine pollen grain. Successive photos show zoospore release from the sporangium, and the arrow points to a flagellum.

Copyright

© 1996 H. Whisler, M. Fuller

Scientific Name

Pilobolus crystallinus (Mucoromycotina)

Comments

Black sporangium atop swollen sporangiophore. Shortly, the swollen subsporangial vesicle will burst to send the sporangium flying. Herbivores eat the sporangium, and the enclosed mitospores germinate in the dung. The bright yellow carotenoid pigment enables the sporangium to orient to light (phototropism). If you look closely, you can see masses of nematodes on the vesicle; probably herbivore pathogens hoping to hitch a ride.

Specimen Condition

Live Specimen

Copyright

© 1996 Meredith Blackwell

Scientific Name

Coprinus comatus

Location

North Fork John Day Ranger District, Umatilla National Forest, northeastern Oregon, United States

Comments

Closed fruiting bodies

Specimen Condition

Live Specimen

Source

#0808028

Source Collection

Bugwood Network/Forestry Images

Image Use

This media file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License - Version 3.0.

Copyright

© Dave Powell, USDA Forest Service

Scientific Name

Sarcoscypha coccinea

Location

Archidona, Málaga, Andalucía, Spain

Comments

Fruiting body of the scarlet cup fungus. Hundreds of millions of meiospores (ascospores) are discharged from this cup, usually in puffs that produce visible clouds of spores.

Specimen Condition

Live Specimen

Source

Sarcoscypha Coccinea

Source Collection

Flickr

Image Use

This media file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License - Version 2.0.

Copyright

© 2002 Coqui

or maybe a algae

The _**International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants**_ (_**ICN**_) is the set of rules and recommendations dealing with the formal botanical namesthat are given to plants, fungi and a few other groups of organisms, all those "traditionally treated as plants".[1]:Preamble, para. 7 It was formerly called the_**International Code of Botanical Nomenclature**_ (ICBN); the name was changed at the International Botanical Congress in Melbourne in July 2011 as part of the _Melbourne Code_ which replaces the _Vienna Code_ of 2005. As with previous codes, it takes effect as soon as ratified by the congress (on Saturday 23 July 2011), but the documentation of the code in its final form takes some time to prepare after the congress. Preliminary wording of some of the articles with the most significant changes has been published in September 2011.[2] The name of the _Code_ is partly capitalized and partly not. The lower-case for "algae, fungi, and plants" indicates that these terms are not formal names ofclades, but indicate groups of organisms that were historically known by these names and traditionally studied by botanists, mycologists, and phycologists. This includes blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria); fungi, including chytrids, oomycetes, and slime moulds; photosynthetic protists and taxonomically related non-photosynthetic groups. There are special provisions in the _ICN_ for some of these groups, as there are for fossils.[1]:Preamble, para. 7 The _ICN_ can only be changed by an International Botanical Congress (IBC), with the International Association for Plant Taxonomy providing the supporting infrastructure. Each new edition supersedes the earlier editions and is retroactive back to 1753, except where different starting dates are specified.[1]:Principle VI For the naming of cultivated plants there is a separate code, the _International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants_, which gives rules and recommendations that supplement the _ICN_.

Contents

[hide]

1 Principles

2 History

3 See also

4 References

[edit]Principles Botanical nomenclature is independent of zoological, bacteriological, and viral nomenclature (see Nomenclature codes). A botanical name is fixed to a taxon by a type.[1]:Article 7 This is almost invariably dried plant material and is usually deposited and preserved in a herbarium, although it may also be an image or a preserved culture. Some type collections can be viewed online at the websites of the herbaria in question. A guiding principle in botanical nomenclature is priority, the first publication of a name for a taxon.[1]:Principle IIII The formal starting date for purposes of priority is 1 May 1753, the publication of _Species Plantarum_ by Linnaeus. However, to avoid undesirable (destabilizing) effects of strict enforcement of priority,conservation of family, genus, and species names is possible. The intent of the Code is that each taxonomic group ("taxon", plural "taxa") of plants has only one correct name that is accepted worldwide, provided that it has the same circumscription, position and rank.[1]:Principle IV The value of a scientific name is that it is an identifier; it is not necessarily of descriptive value. Names of taxa are treated as Latin. The rules of nomenclature are retroactive unless there is an explicit statement that this does not apply. [edit]History The rules governing botanical nomenclature have a long and tumultuous history, dating back to dissatisfaction with rules that were established in 1843 to govern zoological nomenclature.[3] The first set of international rules was the _Lois de la nomenclature botanique_ ("Laws of botanical nomenclature") that was adopted as the "best guide to follow for botanical nomenclature"[3] at an "International Botanical Congress" convened in Paris in 1867.[4][5] Unlike modern codes, it was not enforced. It was organized as six sections with 68 articles in total. Multiple attempts to bring more "expedient" or more equitable practice to botanical nomenclature resulted in several competing codes, which finally reached a compromise with the 1930 congress.[3] In the meantime, the second edition of the international rules followed the Vienna congress in 1905. These rules were published as the _Règles internationales de la Nomenclature botanique adoptées par le Congrès International de Botanique de Vienne 1905_ (or in English, _International rules of Botanical Nomenclature adopted by the International Botanical Conference of Vienna 1905_). Informally they are referred to as the_Vienna Rules_ (not to be confused with the _Vienna Code_).[1]:Preface Some but not all subsequent meetings of the International Botanical Congress have produced revised versions of these _Rules_, later called the _International Code of Botanical Nomenclature_. Some important versions are listed below.

Year of adoption

Informal name

1905

_Vienna Rules_

1935

_Cambridge Rules_

1952

_Stockholm Code_

1969

_Seattle Code_

1975

_Leningrad Code_

1981

_Sydney Code_

1987

_Berlin Code_

1993

_Tokyo Code_

1999

_St Louis Code, The Black Code_

2005

_Vienna Code_

2011

_Melbourne Code_

The Nomenclature Section held just before the 18th International Botanical Congress in Melbourne, Australia in July 2011 saw sweeping changes to the way scientists name new plants, algae, and fungi.[6][7][8] For the first time in history the _Code_ now permits electronic-only publication of names of new taxa; no longer will it be a requirement to deposit some paper copies in libraries. The requirement for a Latin validating diagnosis or description was changed to allow either English or Latin for these essential components of the publication of a new name. "One fungus, one name" and "one fossil, one name" are important changes for fungi and for fossils; the concepts of _anamorph_ and _teleomorph_ (for fungi) as well as _morphotaxa_ (for fossils) have been eliminated. As an experiment with "registration of names", new fungal descriptions will require the use of an identifier from "a recognized repository"; there are two recognized repositories so far, Index Fungorum[9] andMycoBank. The title of the _Code_ was broadened to make explicit that it applies not only to plants, but also to algae and fungi. [edit]See also Specific to botany Author citation (botany) Botanical name Botanical nomenclature International Association for Plant Taxonomy International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants International Plant Names Index Correct name (botany) Infraspecific name (botany) More general Binomial nomenclature Hybrid name Nomenclature codes Scientific classification [edit]References ^ _**a**_ _**b**_ _**c**_ _**d**_ _**e**_ _**f**_ _**g**_ McNeill, J.; Barrie, F. R.; Burdet, H. M. et al., eds. (2006), _International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Vienna Code) Adopted by the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress, Vienna, Austria, July 2005_ (electronic ed.), Vienna: International Association for Plant Taxonomy, retrieved 2011-02-20. Note that as the _ICN_ is not yet online, all references are to the previous _Vienna Code_. Knapp, S.; McNeill, J.; Turland, N.J. (2011). "Changes to publication requirements made at the XVIII International Botanical Congress in Melbourne - what does e-publication mean for you?". _PhytoKeys_ **6** (0): 5–11.doi:10.3897/phytokeys.6.1960. ^ _**a**_ _**b**_ _**c**_ Nicolson, D.H. (1991). "A History of Botanical Nomenclature". _Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden_ **78** (1): 33–56. JSTOR 2399589. Alphonse Pyramus de Candolle (1867). _Lois de la nomenclature botanique adoptées par le Congrès International de Botanique tenu à Paris en août 1867 suivies d'une deuxième édition de l'introduction historique et du commentaire qui accompagnaient la rédaction préparatoire présentée à la congrès_. Genève et Bale: J.-B. Baillière et fils. Alphonse Pyramus de Candolle (1868). _Laws of Botanical Nomenclature adopted by the International Botanical Congress held at Paris in August 1867; together with an Historical Introduction and Commentary by Alphonse de Candolle, Translated from the French_. translated by Hugh Algernon Weddell. London: L. Reeve and Co. Miller JS, Funk VA, Wagner WL, Barrie F, Hoch PC, Herendeen P (2011). "Outcomes of the 2011 Botanical Nomenclature Section at the XVIII International Botanical Congress". _PhytoKeys_ **5**: 1–3.doi:10.3897/phytokeys.5.1850. John McNeill, 2011. Important decisions of the Nomenclature Section of the XVIII International Botanical Congress, Melbourne, 18–22 July 2011. _Botanical Electronic News_, ISSN=1188-603X, 441 Botanists finally ditch Latin and paper, enter 21st century, Hannah Waters, Scientific American blog, December 28, 2011 "Index Fungorum Registration".

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Botany

Subdisciplines of botany

Ethnobotany

Paleobotany

Plant anatomy

Plant ecology

Plant evo-devo

Plant morphology

Plant physiology

Plants

Evolutionary history of plants

Algae

Bryophyte

Pteridophyte

Gymnosperm

Angiosperm

Plant parts

Flower

Fruit

Leaf

Meristem

Root

Stem

Stoma

Vascular tissue

Wood

Plant cells

Cell wall

Chlorophyll

Chloroplast

Photosynthesis

Plant hormone

Plastid

Transpiration

Plant reproduction

Alternation of generations

Gametophyte

Plant sexuality

Pollen

Pollination

Seed

Spore

Sporophyte

Plant taxonomy

Botanical name

Botanical nomenclature

Herbarium

IAPT

**ICN**

_Species Plantarum_

Glossaries

Glossary of botanical terms

Glossary of plant morphology terms

**Category**

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Categories: Botanical nomenclature Classification systems Nomenclature

Penicillin is one of the earliest discovered and widely used antibioticagents, derived from the Penicillium mold. Antibiotics are natural substances that are released by bacteria and fungi into the their environment, as a means of inhibiting other organisms - it is chemical warfare on a microscopic scale. Sir Alexander Fleming Alexander Fleming born August. 6, 1881 , Darvel, Scotland died March 11, 1955 , London, England In 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming observed that colonies of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus could be destroyed by the mold Penicillium notatum, proving that there was an antibacterial agent there in principle. This principle later lead to medicines that could kill certain types of disease-causing bacteria inside the body. At the time, however, the importance of Alexander Fleming's discovery was not known. Use of penicillin did not begin until the 1940s when Howard Florey and Ernst Chain isolated the active ingredient and developed a powdery form of the medicine. History of Penicillin Originally noticed by a French medical student, Ernest Duchesne, in 1896. Penicillin was re-discovered by bacteriologist Alexander Fleming working at St. Mary's Hospital in London in 1928. He observed that a plate culture of Staphylococcus had been contaminated by a blue-green mold and that colonies of bacteria adjacent to the mold were being dissolved. Curious, Alexander Fleming grew the mold in a pure culture and found that it produced a substance that killed a number of disease-causing bacteria. Naming the substance penicillin, Dr. Fleming in 1929 published the results of his investigations, noting that his discovery might have therapeutic value if it could be produced in quantity. Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Hodgkin used x-rays to find the structural layouts of atoms and the overall molecular shape of over 100 molecules including penicillin. Dorothy's discovery of the molecular layout of penicillin helped lead scientists to develop other antibiotics. Dr. Howard Florey It was not until 1939 that Dr. Howard Florey, a future Nobel Laureate, and three colleagues at Oxford University began intensive research and were able to demonstrate penicillin's ability to kill infectious bacteria. As the war with Germany continued to drain industrial and government resources, the British scientists could not produce the quantities of penicillin needed for clinical trials on humans and turned to the United States for help. They were quickly referred to the Peoria Lab where scientists were already working on fermentation methods to increase the growth rate of fungal cultures. One July 9, 1941, Howard Florey and Norman Heatley, Oxford University Scientists came to the U.S. with a small but valuable package containing a small amount of penicillin to begin work. Pumping air into deep vats containing corn steep liquor (a non-alcoholic by-product of the wet milling process) and the addition of other key ingredients was shown to produce faster growth and larger amounts of penicillin than the previous surface-growth method. Ironically, after a worldwide search, it was a strain of penicillin from a moldy cantaloupe in a Peoria market that was found and improved to produce the largest amount of penicillin when grown in the deep vat, submerged conditions. Andrew J. Moyer By November 26, 1941, Andrew J. Moyer, the lab's expert on the nutrition of molds, had succeeded, with the assistance of Dr. Heatley, in increasing the yields of penicillin 10 times. In 1943, the required clinical trials were performed and penicillin was shown to be the most effective antibacterial agent to date. Penicillin production was quickly scaled up and available in quantity to treat Allied soldiers wounded on D-Day. As production was increased, the price dropped from nearly priceless in 1940, to $20 per dose in July 1943, to $0.55 per dose by 1946. As a result of their work, two members of the British group were awarded the Nobel Prize. Dr. Andrew J. Moyer from the Peoria Lab was inducted into the Inventors Hall of Fame and both the British and Peoria Laboratories were designated as International Historic Chemical Landmarks. Andrew J Moyer Patent On May 25, 1948, Andrew J Moyer was granted a patent for a method of the mass production of penicillin. Resistance to Penicillin Four years after drug companies began mass-producing penicillin in 1943, microbes began appearing that could resist it. The first bug to battle penicillin was Staphylococcus aureus. This bacterium is often a harmless passenger in the human body, but it can cause illness, such as pneumonia or toxic shock syndrome, when it overgrows or produces a toxin. Although their names — ringworm, jock itch, and athlete's foot — may sound funny, if you're a teen with one of these skin infections, you're probably not laughing. If you've ever had one, you know that all of these can produce some pretty unpleasant symptoms. The good news is that **tinea**, the name for this category of common skin infections, is generally easy to treat. The Basics on Tinea Infections Tinea (pronounced: **tih**-nee-uh) is the medical name for a group of related skin infections, including athlete's foot, jock itch, and ringworm. They're caused by several types of mold-like fungicalled **dermatophytes** (pronounced: der-**mah**-tuh-fites) that live on the dead tissues of the skin, hair, and nails. What Is Ringworm? Ringworm, which isn't a worm at all, can affect not only the skin, but also the nails and scalp. Ringworm of the skin starts as a red, scaly patch or bump. Ringworm tends to be very itchy and uncomfortable. Over time, it may begin to look like a ring or a series of rings with raised, bumpy, scaly borders (the center is often clear). This ring pattern gave ringworm its name, but not every person who's infected develops the rings. When ringworm affects the feet it's known as athlete's foot, and the rash, which is usually between a person's toes, appears patchy. In fact, the rashes a person gets with athlete's foot and jock itch may not look like rings at all — they may be red, scaly patches. Ringworm of the scalp may start as a small sore that resembles a pimple before becoming patchy, flaky, or scaly. It may cause some hair to fall out or break into stubbles. It can also cause the place where the infection is to become swollen, tender, and red. Ringworm of the nails may affect one or more nails on a person's hands or feet. The nails may become thick, white or yellowish, and brittle. Ringworm of the nails is not too common before puberty, though. Can I Prevent Ringworm? The most common sources of the fungi that cause tinea infections are other people. Ringworm is contagious and is easily spread from one person to another, so avoid touching an infected area on another person. It's also possible to become infected from contact with animals, like cats and dogs. It can be difficult to avoid ringworm because the dermatophyte fungi are very common. To protect yourself against infection, it can help to wear flip-flops on your feet in the locker room shower or at the pool, and to wash sports clothing regularly. Because fungi are on your skin, it's important to shower after contact sports and to wash your hands often, especially after touching pets. If you discover a red, patchy, itchy area that you think may be ringworm, call your doctor. How Is Ringworm Treated? Fortunately, ringworm is fairly easy to diagnose and treat. Doctors usually can diagnose ringworm based on how it looks, but sometimes will scrape off a small sample of the flaky infected skin to test for fungus. If you do have ringworm, your doctor will recommend an antifungal medication. A topical ointment or cream usually takes care of skin infections, but ringworm of the scalp or nails requires oral antifungal medication. Your doctor will decide which treatment is best for you. witch one did you think i was here are some pics

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	5. Chapter 5

WELCOME TO _BOUND FOR THE PROMISED LAND: HARRIET TUBMAN, PORTRAIT OF AN AMERICAN HERO_!

Click the tabs to the left and find the latest research and information about Harriet Tubman, her family, the places she lived and worked, the people she knew and loved, and her activities on the Underground Railroad.

**IMPORTANT NEWS! As an historian of the American experience, I believe that it is vitally important to preserve historical places related to our national history and cultural heritage. Many sites and landscapes, however, associated with the histories and contributions of minorities and women have traditionally been overlooked and ignored. I am profoundly pleased, then, that legislation has recently been introduced into Congress to create The Harriet Tubman National Historical Park to honor Harriet Tubman, the formerly enslaved Underground Railroad conductor, Civil War hero, community and civil rights advocate. The establishment of this national park would recognize, preserve and interpret for Americans, and others from around the world, the nationally significant places of Tubman's birth, enslavement, and Underground Railroad activity on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, and the home she created in freedom in Auburn, N.Y., where she spent the last 50 years of her activist life. The Harriet Tubman National Historical Park Act is now pending in Congress, notably Senate bill S. 227 and House bill H.R. 1078. If the bills are passed, this park would preserve and interpret approximately 6,700 acres of historic significance to Harriet Tubman's life and legacy This national park would incorporate two park locations: the Harriet Tubman National Historical Park in Auburn, N.Y., and the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park in Maryland. The park in Auburn would include Tubman's residence, the Home for the Aged she established for African Americans, the Thompson Memorial AME Zion Church, and her gravesite at Fort Hill Cemetery. These historic sites would be complimented by a related park site in Maryland that encompasses the landscapes of her birth, childhood and young adulthood in slavery, as well as the sites of her escape missions and Underground Railroad activity in Dorchester, Caroline and Talbot counties. I am urging passage of the Harriet Tubman National Historical Park Act now. Harriet Tubman is an essential historical figure in the American story. More famous today than the day she died in 1913, Tubman represents and embodies what we as Americans hold dear perhaps more than ever: the struggles for freedom, equality, justice and self-determination. It is through the commemoration and recognition of her individual contributions to these American ideals, her continued activism in pursuit of them, and her memory, which continues to inspire generations of Americans and others of all backgrounds, that we as a nation can celebrate what is truly unique about our democracy and national story. One individual can indeed make a difference, and through the Harriet Tubman National Historical Park we can include in our national historical narrative the presence of women and minorities who have long and quietly shaped the nation we have become and continue to hope to be.**

HARRIET ROSS TUBMAN LIFE:

Tubman, Harriet Ross (1822-1913). Born into slavery on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, Tubman gained international acclaim as an Underground Railroad operator, abolitionist, Civil War spy and nurse, suffragist, and humanitarian. After escaping from enslavement in 1849, Tubman dedicated herself to fighting for freedom, equality, and justice for the remainder of her long life, earning her the biblical name "Moses" and a place among the nation's most famous historical figures.

Originally named Araminta, or "Minty," Harriet Tubman was born in early 1822 on the plantation of Anthony Thompson, south of Madison in Dorchester County, Maryland. Tubman was the fifth of nine children of Harriet "Rit" Green and Benjamin Ross, both slaves. Edward Brodess, the stepson of Anthony Thompson, claimed ownership of Rit and her children through his mother Mary Pattison Brodess Thompson. Ben Ross, the slave of Anthony Thompson, was a timber inspector who supervised and managed a vast timbering operation on Thompson's land. The Ross's relatively stable family life on Thompson's plantation came to abrupt end sometime in late 1823 or early 1824 when Edward Brodess took Rit and her then five children, including Tubman, to his own farm in Bucktown, a small agricultural village ten miles to the east. Brodess often hired Tubman out to temporary masters, some who were cruel and negligent, while selling other members of her family illegally to out of state buyers, permanently fracturing her family.

Working as a field hand while a young teen, Tubman was nearly killed by a blow to her head from an iron weight, thrown by an angry overseer at another fleeing slave. The severe injury left her suffering from headaches, seizures and sleeping spells that plagued her for the rest of her life. During the late 1830s and early 1840s, Tubman worked for John T. Stewart, a Madison merchant and shipbuilder, bringing her back to the familial and social community near where her father lived and where she had been born. About 1844 she married a local free black named John Tubman, shedding her childhood name Minty in favor of Harriet.

_On the road to Ben Ross's probable cabin site, and possibly Harriet Tubman's birthsite, near Madison and Woolford in Dorchester County, MD._

* * *

On March 7, 1849, Edward Brodess died on his farm at Bucktown at the age of 47, leaving Tubman and her family at risk of being sold to settle Brodess's debts. In the late fall of 1849 Tubman took her own liberty. She tapped into an Underground Railroad that was already functioning well on the Eastern Shore: traveling by night, using the North Star and instructions from white and black helpers, she found her way to Philadelphia. She sought work as a domestic, saving her money to help the rest of her family escape. From 1850 to 1860, Tubman conducted between eleven and thirteen escape missions, bringing away approximately seventy individuals, including her brothers, parents, and other family and friends, while also giving instructions to approximately fifty more who found their way to freedom independently.

The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 left most refugee slaves vulnerable to recapture, and many fled to the safety and protection of Canada. Indeed, Tubman brought many of her charges to St. Catharines, Ontario, where they settled into a growing community of freedom seekers. Her dangerous missions won the admiration of black and white abolitionists throughout the North who provided her with funds to continue her activities. In 1858, Tubman met with the legendary freedom fighter, John Brown, in her North Street home in St. Catharines. Impressed by his passion for ending slavery, she committed herself to helping him recruit former slaves to join him on his planned raid at Harper's Ferry, Va. Though she hoped to be at his side when the raid took place in October 1859, illness may have prevented her from joining him. In 1859, William Henry Seward, Lincoln's future Secretary of State, sold Tubman a home on the outskirts of Auburn, New York, where she eventually settled her aged parents and other family members. On her way to Boston in April 1860, Tubman became the heroine of the day when she helped rescue a fugitive slave, Charles Nalle, from the custody of United States Marshals charged with returning him to his Virginia master.

In early 1862, Tubman joined Northern abolitionists in support of Union activities at Port Royal, South Carolina. Throughout the Civil War she provided badly needed nursing care to black soldiers and hundreds of newly liberated slaves who crowded Union camps. Tubman's military service expanded to include spying and scouting behind Confederate lines. In early June 1863, she became the first woman to command an armed military raid when she guided Col. James Montgomery and his 2nd South Carolina black regiment up the Combahee River, routing out Confederate outposts, destroying stockpiles of cotton, food and weapons, and liberating over 700 slaves.

After the war, Tubman returned to Auburn, New York. There she began another career as a community activist, humanitarian, and suffragist. In 1869, Sarah Bradford published a short biography of Tubman called "Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman," bringing brief fame and financial relief to Tubman and her family. She married Nelson Davis, a veteran, that same year; her husband John Tubman had been killed in 1867 in Dorchester County, Maryland. She struggled financially the rest of her life, however. Denied her own military pension, she eventually received a widow's pension as the wife of Nelson Davis, and, later, a Civil War nurse's pension.

Her humanitarian work triumphed with the opening of the Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged, located on land abutting her own property in Auburn, which she successfully purchased by mortgage and then transferred to the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church in 1903. Active in the suffrage movement since 1860, Tubman continued to appear at local and national suffrage conventions until the early 1900s. She died at the age of 91 on March 10, 1913 in Auburn, New York.

Selected Bibliography:

Bradford, Sarah H. Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman. Auburn, New York: W.J. Moses, 1869.

Bradford, Sarah H. Harriet, The Moses of Her People. New York: Geo. R. Lockwood & Son, 1886.

Conrad, Earl. Harriet Tubman. Washington, D.C.: Associated Publishers, 1943.

Larson, Kate Clifford. Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, Portrait of an American Hero. New York: Ballantine Books, December 2003.


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